🌍 AP United States History - Unit 7

Conflict in the Early 20th Century, 1890–1945

Period 7: America emerges as a world power through wars, reforms, economic crisis, and global leadership

7.0 Unit Overview: The Early 20th Century (1890-1945)

Unit 7 Essential Question:

How did global conflicts, domestic reforms, and economic crises transform America from a regional power into the world's leading economic and military superpower?

📊 Key Concepts Overview

Key Concept 7.1:

Growth in overseas trade and American involvement in overseas territory led to the gradual creation of an American empire, as the United States emerged as an economic and military power in the early 20th century.

Key Concept 7.2:

Innovations in communications and technology contributed to the growth of mass culture, while significant changes occurred in internal and international migration patterns.

Key Concept 7.3:

Participation in a series of global conflicts propelled the United States into a position of international leadership while debates over America's proper role in the world continued.

⏰ Chronological Framework

1890-1914: Imperialism, Progressivism, and growing global involvement

1914-1920: World War I and its aftermath

1920-1929: The Roaring Twenties and cultural conflicts

1929-1939: Great Depression and New Deal response

1939-1945: World War II and emergence as superpower

🎯 Major Themes

American Imperialism: Overseas expansion and empire building
Progressive Reform: Government activism and social improvement
Global Leadership: World War I and America as world power
Cultural Modernization: 1920s innovations and generational conflict
Economic Crisis: Great Depression and government response
New Deal State: Expanded federal government role
World War: Global conflict and American mobilization
Superpower Emergence: America as dominant world power
Civil Rights Evolution: Changing status of minorities

7.1 Context: America in the World

Learning Objective:

Explain the context for American involvement in World War I and the Spanish-American War.

🌍 Global Context of the 1890s

By 1890, the United States had completed continental expansion and emerged as the world's leading industrial economy. The closing of the frontier coincided with European imperial competition and growing global interconnectedness.

International Developments:

European imperialism: "Scramble for Africa" and Asian colonization
Industrial competition: Germany challenged British economic dominance
Naval arms race: Great powers built modern battleship fleets
Alliance system: European powers formed opposing blocs
Global trade: International markets and investment grew rapidly

🇺🇸 America's New Position

End of Continental Expansion:

Frontier closed (1890): Census declared no more frontier line
Industrial supremacy: America led world in manufacturing output
Population growth: 63 million people by 1890
Economic surplus: Need for new markets and investment opportunities
Naval modernization: Alfred Thayer Mahan's influence on sea power

📚 Intellectual Foundations

Theories Supporting Expansion:

Manifest Destiny evolution: Divine mission extended beyond continent
Social Darwinism: "Superior" races should dominate "inferior" ones
Economic necessity: Overseas markets needed for continued growth
Naval power theory: Mahan's "The Influence of Sea Power upon History"
Civilizing mission: Spread American values and Christianity

💰 Economic Motivations

Commercial Expansion Drivers:

Market saturation: Domestic markets couldn't absorb all production
Investment opportunities: Surplus capital seeking higher returns
Resource access: Raw materials for industrial production
Agricultural exports: Farmers needed overseas customers
Business pressure: Corporations pushed for government support

⚓ Naval Development

Building a Modern Navy:

Naval Act of 1890: Authorized construction of battleships
Steel fleet: Replaced old wooden ships with modern vessels
Overseas bases: Need for coaling stations and naval facilities
Officer professionalism: Naval War College established (1884)
Strategic thinking: Mahan's influence on naval policy

🗺️ Early Imperial Steps

Samoa (1878-1899): Joint control with Germany and Britain, exclusive rights to Pago Pago harbor

Hawaii (1893-1898): American planters overthrew Queen Liliuokalani, eventual annexation

Venezuela Boundary Dispute (1895): Enforced Monroe Doctrine against British claims

📰 Public Opinion and Media

Shaping Imperial Sentiment:

Yellow journalism: Sensationalist newspapers promoted expansion
Mission rhetoric: Religious and civilizing mission arguments
Masculine imagery: Empire-building as test of national virility
Economic arguments: Expansion as solution to domestic problems
Racial superiority: Anglo-Saxon duty to rule "backward" peoples

Click to understand America's global emergence! 🌍

7.2 Imperialism: Debates

Learning Objective:

Explain the similarities and differences in attitudes toward the use of the military and diplomatic power of the United States in Mexico, China, and the Middle East.

⚔️ Pro-Imperialism Arguments

Expansionist Justifications:

Economic necessity: Markets and resources essential for continued prosperity
National security: Naval bases and strategic positions needed
Civilizing mission: Duty to spread democracy and Christianity
Social Darwinism: Strong nations must dominate or decline
International competition: Must keep up with European powers

🕊️ Anti-Imperialism Movement

Anti-Imperialist League (1898):

Prominent members: Mark Twain, Andrew Carnegie, William Jennings Bryan
Constitutional argument: Constitution doesn't allow governing people without consent
Democratic principles: Imperialism violates self-government ideals
Economic costs: Colonial administration expensive and risky
Racial concerns: Feared mixing of races

📊 Key Debate Issues

Imperialism Debate:

Issue	Pro-Imperialist View	Anti-Imperialist View
Economics	Markets and resources needed	Trade possible without colonies
Constitution	Federal power extends to territories	Constitution follows the flag
Democracy	Spread American ideals abroad	Can't govern without consent
Race	Anglo-Saxon duty to civilize	Feared racial mixing and conflict
Defense	Strategic bases essential	Distance provides natural security

👥 Key Figures

Prominent Expansionists:

Alfred Thayer Mahan: Naval strategist, sea power advocate
Theodore Roosevelt: Assistant Secretary of Navy, war enthusiast
Henry Cabot Lodge: Senator, expansionist leader
William McKinley: President during Spanish-American War
Josiah Strong: Minister, "Our Country" promoted expansion

Anti-Imperialist Leaders:

Grover Cleveland: Opposed Hawaiian annexation
Carl Schurz: German-American politician and reformer
Charles Eliot Norton: Harvard professor and critic
Jane Addams: Social reformer opposed to militarism
Samuel Gompers: Labor leader worried about competition

🏛️ Congressional Debates

Legislative Battles:

Hawaiian annexation: Failed under Cleveland, succeeded under McKinley
Treaty of Paris: Narrow Senate approval for Philippine acquisition
Platt Amendment: Cuba protectorate provisions
Insular Cases: Supreme Court ruled on colonial governance
Military appropriations: Funding for naval expansion

📰 Public Opinion

Media and Popular Sentiment:

Yellow journalism: Hearst and Pulitzer promoted war and expansion
Popular literature: Adventure stories romanticized empire
Religious support: Missionary societies backed expansion
Business backing: Chambers of Commerce endorsed imperialism
Regional differences: West and South more supportive than Northeast

⚖️ Constitutional Questions

Legal and Constitutional Issues:

"Constitution follows the flag": Do constitutional rights apply in territories?
Congressional power: Authority to govern distant territories
Citizenship questions: Status of colonial inhabitants
Military government: Authority to impose martial law
Trade regulation: Tariff policies for territories

🌐 International Comparisons

American vs. European Imperialism:

Economic focus: America emphasized trade over territorial control
Democratic rhetoric: Expansion justified as spreading freedom
Temporary control: Promise of eventual independence
Racial attitudes: Similar prejudices but different justifications
Regional approach: Focus on Western Hemisphere and Pacific

Click to explore the imperialism debate! ⚔️

7.3 The Spanish-American War

Learning Objective:

Explain the causes and consequences of the Spanish-American War.

🔥 Causes of War

Immediate Causes:

Cuban Revolution (1895): José Martí led independence movement
Spanish brutality: General Weyler's concentration camps
Yellow journalism: Hearst and Pulitzer sensationalized atrocities
De Lôme Letter (1898): Spanish diplomat insulted President McKinley
USS Maine explosion: Blamed on Spain, "Remember the Maine!"

⚓ The Maine Incident

February 15, 1898: USS Maine exploded in Havana Harbor, killing 266 sailors. Yellow press blamed Spanish sabotage, though cause was likely accidental

Road to War:

Public pressure: "Remember the Maine" rallying cry
Congressional war fever: Legislative pressure for action
McKinley's reluctance: President preferred peaceful solution
Business concerns: Initially opposed war for economic stability
War declaration: April 25, 1898, Congress declared war

⚔️ Military Campaigns

Philippine Campaign:

Manila Bay (May 1, 1898): Admiral Dewey destroyed Spanish Pacific fleet
Filipino allies: Emilio Aguinaldo's rebels assisted Americans
Manila captured: City fell to American forces
Strategic importance: Secured American position in Pacific

Caribbean Campaign:

Rough Riders: Theodore Roosevelt's volunteer cavalry unit
San Juan Hill: Roosevelt's famous charge (actually Kettle Hill)
Santiago siege: Spanish fleet trapped and destroyed
Puerto Rico: Invaded with minimal resistance

📜 Treaty of Paris (1898)

Peace Settlement Terms:

Cuban independence: Spain recognized Cuban independence
Philippines ceded: Spain sold Philippines to U.S. for $20 million
Guam acquired: Strategic Pacific island base
Puerto Rico: Became U.S. territory
Senate ratification: Narrow approval after heated debate

🏝️ Consequences and New Territories

Territorial Acquisitions:

Hawaii (1898): Annexed during war as strategic necessity
Wake Island: Occupied as Pacific way station
American Samoa: Secured coaling station at Pago Pago
Naval bases: Established global network of facilities
Colonial administration: Created new government structures

⚔️ Philippine-American War (1899-1902)

Colonial Conflict:

Filipino expectations: Expected independence after Spanish defeat
American betrayal: U.S. decided to keep Philippines
Guerrilla warfare: Filipinos fought three-year insurgency
American tactics: Concentration camps, water torture, harsh repression
Casualties: 4,200 American, 20,000 Filipino military, 200,000+ civilian deaths

🏛️ Constitutional and Political Impact

Insular Cases (1901-1904):

Constitutional question: Do territories have full constitutional rights?
Supreme Court ruling: Constitution doesn't automatically apply to territories
Incorporated vs. unincorporated: Different levels of territorial status
Congressional power: Legislature determines territorial rights
Colonial governance: Legal framework for empire administration

📊 War's Significance

Before and After Spanish-American War:

Aspect	Before 1898	After 1898
International Status	Regional power	Imperial world power
Territory	Continental United States	Caribbean and Pacific empire
Military	Small peacetime force	Modern navy, overseas bases
Foreign Policy	Hemispheric focus	Global involvement
Economic Role	Regional trade	Global markets and investment

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Click to understand the war's impact! 🏝️

7.4 The Progressives

Learning Objective:

Explain the context in which America grew into the role of a world power.

🌟 Progressive Era Origins

Sources of Progressive Reform:

Urban problems: Industrialization created poverty, corruption, unsafe conditions
Economic inequality: Gap between rich and poor widened dramatically
Political corruption: Machine politics and corporate influence
Social disorder: Immigration, urbanization challenged traditional values
Moral awakening: Christian social responsibility movements

💡 Progressive Ideology

Core Progressive Beliefs:

Faith in progress: Social problems could be solved through reform
Scientific method: Research and expertise should guide policy
Efficiency: Government and business should operate rationally
Democracy: Expand popular participation and control
Social justice: Government should protect the weak

👥 Progressive Leaders and Organizations

Key Reform Leaders:

Jane Addams: Hull House, settlement movement, social work profession
Jacob Riis: "How the Other Half Lives," photojournalism
Lincoln Steffens: "The Shame of the Cities," muckraking journalist
Ida Tarbell: "History of Standard Oil," exposed monopoly practices
Upton Sinclair: "The Jungle," meat packing industry exposé

📰 Muckraking Journalism

Investigative Reporting:

McClure's Magazine: Leading muckraking publication
Corporate corruption: Exposed business monopolies and fraud
Political corruption: Revealed machine politics and graft
Social conditions: Documented poverty and urban problems
Public awareness: Created demand for reform legislation

🏛️ Political Reforms

Democratic Reforms:

Direct election of senators: 17th Amendment (1913)
Women's suffrage: 19th Amendment (1920)
Initiative and referendum: Direct democracy measures
Recall elections: Remove corrupt officials
Primary elections: Reduce party boss control

🏭 Economic Regulation

Business Reform Legislation:

Sherman Antitrust Act enforcement: Trust-busting campaigns
Pure Food and Drug Act (1906): Federal food safety regulation
Meat Inspection Act (1906): Federal oversight of meat packing
Federal Reserve Act (1913): Reformed banking system
Clayton Act (1914): Strengthened antitrust laws

👩 Women's Reform Activities

Female Progressives:

Settlement houses: Direct service to urban poor
Temperance movement: WCTU campaigns against alcohol
Child welfare: Laws protecting children from exploitation
Labor legislation: Maximum hours and minimum wage laws
Public health: Sanitation and disease prevention programs

🏙️ Urban Reform

City Government Reform:

Commission government: Replaced weak mayor systems
City manager: Professional administration
Municipal ownership: Public utilities and services
City planning: Parks, housing, transportation coordination
Social services: Public health, education, welfare programs

👨‍💼 Progressive Presidents

Theodore Roosevelt (1901-1909): Trust-buster, conservationist, "Square Deal" domestic program

William Howard Taft (1909-1913): Continued antitrust enforcement, dollar diplomacy

Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921): "New Freedom" program, Federal Reserve, tariff reform

🌲 Conservation Movement

Environmental Protection:

National forests: Roosevelt created 150 million acres of reserves
National parks: Yellowstone model expanded
Gifford Pinchot: Scientific forestry and resource management
John Muir: Wilderness preservation advocacy
Reclamation Act (1902): Federal irrigation projects

📊 Progressive Achievements and Limitations

Progressive Era Successes and Failures:

Area	Achievements	Limitations
Political Democracy	Direct election, women's suffrage, primaries	African Americans still disenfranchised
Economic Regulation	Antitrust laws, Federal Reserve, food safety	Capitalism unchanged, limited labor gains
Social Reform	Child labor laws, settlement houses, prohibition	Racial segregation increased
Government Efficiency	Civil service expansion, expert administration	Machine politics persisted in many cities

Click to explore Progressive achievements! 🌟

7.5 World War I: Military and Diplomacy

Learning Objective:

Explain the causes of World War I and reasons for U.S. entry.

🌍 Causes of World War I

European Background:

Alliance system: Triple Alliance vs. Triple Entente
Imperialism: Competition for colonies created tensions
Nationalism: Ethnic groups sought independence
Militarism: Arms race and war planning
Crisis in Balkans: "Powder keg of Europe"

June 28, 1914: Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated in Sarajevo by Serbian nationalist

August 1914: European mobilization escalated local conflict into world war

🇺🇸 American Neutrality (1914-1917)

Wilson's Neutrality Policy:

Official neutrality: "Neutral in fact and in name and in thought"
Trade with both sides: Commerce continued with all belligerents
Moral leadership: America as mediator and peacemaker
Preparedness debate: Military expansion controversy
Economic ties: Loans and trade favored Allies

🚢 Maritime Issues

Naval Warfare Challenges:

British blockade: Prevented trade with Central Powers
German U-boats: Submarine warfare violated traditional rules
Lusitania sinking (1915): 1,198 deaths including 128 Americans
Sussex Pledge (1916): Germany promised to warn before attacking
Neutral rights: Freedom of navigation disputed

📜 Path to War

Zimmermann Telegram (January 1917): German proposal for Mexico-Germany alliance intercepted by British

Unrestricted Submarine Warfare (February 1917): Germany resumed attacks on all shipping

Russian Revolution (March 1917): Made war more clearly democratic vs. autocratic

April 6, 1917: Congress declared war on Germany

⚔️ American Military Contribution

U.S. War Effort:

Selective Service Act: Drafted 2.8 million men
American Expeditionary Force: 2 million troops sent to Europe
General John J. Pershing: Commanded AEF, insisted on independent command
Major battles: Château-Thierry, Belleau Wood, Meuse-Argonne
Naval contribution: Convoy system, submarine warfare

🕊️ Wilson's Peace Program

Fourteen Points (January 1918):

Open diplomacy: No secret treaties
Freedom of seas: Neutral rights protection
Free trade: Remove economic barriers
Arms reduction: Limit military forces
Colonial adjustment: Self-determination for peoples
League of Nations: International organization for peace

📄 Treaty of Versailles

Peace Conference Results:

Big Four: Wilson, Lloyd George, Clemenceau, Orlando
German guilt clause: Article 231 blamed Germany for war
Reparations: Germany required to pay massive damages
Territorial changes: New nations created from empires
League of Nations: International peacekeeping organization

🏛️ Senate Rejection

League of Nations Debate:

Article X concerns: Collective security obligations
Henry Cabot Lodge: Led Republican opposition
Irreconcilables: Opposed any international commitments
Reservationists: Wanted modifications to treaty
Wilson's stroke: President's illness prevented compromise

📊 War's Impact

World War I Consequences:

Area	Changes	Long-term Impact
International	U.S. emerged as world power	American global leadership role
Economic	Creditor to debtor nation shift	New York replaced London as financial center
Political	Expanded federal power	Precedent for government mobilization
Social	Women and minorities gained opportunities	Civil rights momentum began
Diplomatic	Isolationist reaction to internationalism	Delayed acceptance of world leadership

Click to understand WWI's transformative impact! 🌍

7.6 World War I: Home Front

Learning Objective:

Explain how the U.S. government mobilized the economy for the war effort and the effects of mobilization on politics and American society.

🏭 Economic Mobilization

Government War Agencies:

War Industries Board: Coordinated production, allocated resources
Food Administration: Herbert Hoover promoted conservation
Fuel Administration: Managed coal and oil distribution
Railroad Administration: Federal control of rail transportation
War Labor Board: Mediated labor-management disputes

💰 Financing the War

War Funding Methods:

Liberty Bonds: $23 billion raised through bond sales
Income tax expansion: Revenue Act increased rates and coverage
Excess profits tax: Corporate war profits heavily taxed
War savings stamps: Small denominations for all citizens
Total cost: $33 billion war expenditure

👷 Labor Changes

Workforce Transformation:

Labor shortage: Military draft reduced available workers
Women workers: 1 million women entered workforce
African American migration: 500,000 blacks moved north for jobs
Mexican immigration: Labor shortages brought Mexican workers
Union growth: AFL membership increased from 2 to 4 million

👩 Women's War Roles

Female Participation:

Industrial work: Munitions factories, steel mills, shipyards
Government service: Clerical positions, telephone operators
Military service: Navy and Marines accepted women
Volunteer work: Red Cross, Liberty Bond drives
Suffrage acceleration: War work strengthened voting rights arguments

📢 Propaganda and Public Opinion

Committee on Public Information:

George Creel: Directed massive propaganda campaign
"Four Minute Men": 75,000 speakers gave patriotic talks
Liberty Bond campaigns: Celebrity endorsements and rallies
Anti-German sentiment: German culture demonized
War posters: Visual propaganda promoted participation

🚫 Civil Liberties Restrictions

Wartime Legislation:

Espionage Act (1917): Criminalized interference with war effort
Sedition Act (1918): Banned "disloyal" speech
Schenck v. United States (1919): "Clear and present danger" test
2,000 prosecutions: Socialists, pacifists, German Americans targeted
Eugene Debs: Socialist leader imprisoned for speech

🏃 Great Migration

African American Movement:

Push factors: Jim Crow laws, lynching, economic hardship
Pull factors: Industrial jobs, better wages, less discrimination
Northern destinations: Chicago, Detroit, New York, Philadelphia
Social impact: Urban black communities grew rapidly
Racial tensions: Competition for housing and jobs caused conflicts

🔥 Social Tensions

Domestic Conflicts:

Red Scare (1919-1920): Fear of communist revolution
Palmer Raids: Attorney General targeted radicals
Race riots: East St. Louis (1917), Chicago (1919)
Labor strikes: 1919 strike wave, Seattle general strike
Nativism revival: Anti-immigrant sentiment increased

🍺 Prohibition

18th Amendment (1919): Prohibition of alcohol production and sale, ratified during war as patriotic measure

Wartime Ratification Factors:

Anti-German sentiment: Beer associated with German culture
Food conservation: Grain needed for bread, not alcohol
Industrial efficiency: Sober workers more productive
Moral crusade: War as opportunity for social purification
Women's suffrage: Female voters expected to support prohibition

📊 Home Front Impact

WWI Home Front Changes:

Group	Gains	Losses
Women	Work opportunities, suffrage achieved	Post-war job displacement
African Americans	Northern jobs, economic advancement	Racial violence, continued discrimination
Labor	Union recognition, higher wages	Post-war strikes crushed
German Americans	None	Cultural persecution, loyalty questioned
Radicals	None	Imprisonment, deportation, surveillance

🏛️ Expanded Federal Power

Government Growth:

Economic control: Federal regulation of production and distribution
Social regulation: Prohibition, speech restrictions
Taxation power: Income tax became primary revenue source
Administrative capacity: New agencies and bureaucracy
Precedent set: Model for future government mobilization

Click to understand home front transformation! 🏭

7.7 1920s: Innovations

Learning Objective:

Explain the causes and effects of the innovations in communication and technology in the 1920s.

📻 Mass Communication Revolution

Radio Broadcasting:

KDKA Pittsburgh (1920): First commercial radio station
National networks: NBC (1926), CBS (1927) created national culture
Programming variety: News, music, sports, drama, comedy
Advertising medium: Commercial sponsorship model developed
10 million households: Radio ownership by 1929

🎬 Motion Picture Industry

Hollywood's Golden Age:

Studio system: Major studios controlled production, distribution, exhibition
Star system: Mary Pickford, Charlie Chaplin, Rudolph Valentino
"Talkies" (1927): "The Jazz Singer" introduced synchronized sound
Weekly attendance: 100 million Americans attended movies
Cultural influence: Movies shaped fashion, behavior, values

🚗 Automobile Revolution

Mass Production and Mass Consumption:

Henry Ford's Model T: Assembly line production, $300 car
Consumer credit: Installment buying made cars affordable
26 million cars (1929): One car for every 4.5 Americans
Economic impact: Steel, rubber, glass, oil industries grew
Social transformation: Suburban growth, dating patterns changed

✈️ Aviation Advances

Charles Lindbergh (1927): Solo transatlantic flight from New York to Paris in "Spirit of St. Louis"

Aviation Development:

Commercial aviation: Mail service led to passenger flights
Air races: Popular spectator sport promoted technology
Military implications: Air power strategic importance recognized
Geographic shrinkage: Travel times dramatically reduced
Symbol of progress: Aviation represented American technological superiority

⚡ Electrical Revolution

Electrification of America:

Power generation: Electricity production doubled in decade
Home appliances: Refrigerators, washing machines, vacuum cleaners
Urban lighting: Neon signs, electric street lamps
Industrial applications: Electric motors revolutionized manufacturing
70% of homes: Had electricity by 1930

🏢 Business Innovation

Management and Marketing:

Scientific management: Efficiency experts optimized production
Chain stores: A&P, Woolworth's standardized retail
Advertising industry: Madison Avenue created consumer demand
Brand names: National products and corporate identity
Installment buying: Consumer credit expanded purchasing power

🛍️ Consumer Culture

Mass Consumption Society:

Department stores: Macy's, Gimbel's became shopping destinations
Fashion industry: Ready-to-wear clothing mass produced
Leisure activities: Movies, sports, amusement parks
Home ownership: Suburban housing boom
Status symbols: Cars, appliances showed social position

📞 Communication Advances

Information Technology:

Long-distance telephone: Transcontinental calling available
Transatlantic radio: International wireless communication
Improved printing: Faster presses, color reproduction
Photography: 35mm cameras made photography accessible
Sound recording: Electrical recording improved quality

📊 Innovation Impact

1920s Technological Changes:

Innovation	Economic Impact	Social Impact	Cultural Impact
Automobile	Created new industries	Suburban growth, mobility	Dating, family patterns changed
Radio	New advertising medium	National information sharing	Uniform national culture
Movies	Entertainment industry growth	Leisure time activities	Fashion, behavior models
Electricity	Industrial productivity gains	Home labor reduced	Urban nightlife expanded
Aviation	New transportation industry	Geographic mobility	Symbol of progress

🌟 Cultural Modernization

Modern Life:

Urban lifestyle: Fast-paced, cosmopolitan culture
Youth culture: College students, flappers, new fashions
Leisure society: Shorter work weeks, more entertainment
Scientific mindset: Efficiency, rationality, progress
National identity: Shared experiences through mass media

Click to explore 1920s innovations! 📻

7.8 1920s: Cultural and Political Controversies

Learning Objective:

Explain the causes and effects of the cultural conflicts of the 1920s.

🏛️ Red Scare and Nativism

Anti-Radical Hysteria:

Palmer Raids (1919-1920): Attorney General arrested suspected radicals
Sacco and Vanzetti: Italian anarchists executed despite questionable evidence
Labor strikes crushed: Government and business suppressed unions
Communist Party banned: Political persecution of leftists
Deportation campaigns: Foreign-born radicals expelled

🚫 Immigration Restriction

Quota System Laws:

Emergency Quota Act (1921): Limited immigration to 3% of 1910 census
National Origins Act (1924): Reduced to 2% of 1890 census
Asian exclusion: Banned all Asian immigration
Discriminatory intent: Favored Northern/Western Europeans
Border Patrol created: Enforced immigration laws

👻 Ku Klux Klan Revival

Second KKK (1915-1930):

D.W. Griffith's "Birth of a Nation": Film romanticized original Klan
Expanded targets: Catholics, Jews, immigrants, urban "vice"
National organization: 5 million members at peak
Political influence: Controlled state governments in several states
Middle-class support: Appealed to "100% American" sentiment

⛪ Fundamentalism vs. Modernism

Scopes Trial (1925): Tennessee teacher prosecuted for teaching evolution, clash between science and religion

Religious Controversy:

Biblical literalism: Fundamentalists insisted on literal Bible interpretation
Anti-evolution laws: Several states banned Darwin's theory
William Jennings Bryan: Prosecuted Scopes, defender of fundamentalism
Clarence Darrow: Defense attorney, champion of modernism
Cultural divide: Rural traditionalism vs. urban modernism

🍺 Prohibition and Its Consequences

18th Amendment Effects:

Organized crime: Al Capone, bootlegging syndicates
Speakeasies: Illegal drinking establishments flourished
Government corruption: Police and officials bribed
Violence: Gang wars over territory and profits
Selective enforcement: Upper class continued drinking

💃 Youth Culture and Changing Morality

Generational Rebellion:

Flappers: Young women with short hair, makeup, revealing clothing
Dating revolution: Unchaperoned courtship, "petting parties"
College life: Campus social activities, fraternity/sorority culture
Jazz music: Syncopated rhythms, African American influences
Dance crazes: Charleston, fox trot challenged Victorian propriety

🎷 Harlem Renaissance

African American Cultural Flowering:

Literary achievement: Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, Claude McKay
Musical innovation: Duke Ellington, Louis Armstrong, Bessie Smith
Artistic expression: Aaron Douglas, Augusta Savage
Intellectual leadership: W.E.B. Du Bois, Marcus Garvey
Cultural pride: "New Negro" movement, racial consciousness

🏙️ Urban vs. Rural Divide

Cultural Conflicts of the 1920s:

Issue	Urban/Modern View	Rural/Traditional View
Religion	Modernist, social gospel	Fundamentalist, biblical literalism
Science	Evolution, scientific method	Biblical creation, skeptical of science
Morality	Personal freedom, experimentation	Victorian values, moral standards
Immigration	Cultural diversity, tolerance	Anglo-Saxon superiority, restriction
Prohibition	Personal choice, ineffective	Moral necessity, family protection

📰 Media and Culture Wars

Information and Entertainment:

Mass circulation magazines: Saturday Evening Post, Ladies' Home Journal
Tabloid journalism: Sensational stories, celebrity gossip
Radio programming: National broadcasts shaped opinion
Hollywood censorship: Moral codes restricted film content
Advertising influence: Consumer culture promoted modern values

🏛️ Political Conservatism

Republican Dominance:

Warren G. Harding (1921-1923): "Return to normalcy"
Calvin Coolidge (1923-1929): "The business of America is business"
Herbert Hoover (1929-1933): Rugged individualism, minimal government
Pro-business policies: Tax cuts, deregulation, tariff protection
Isolationist foreign policy: Avoided international commitments

⚡ Lasting Impact

1920s Cultural Legacy:

Modern vs. traditional: Tensions continued throughout century
Mass culture: National media created shared experiences
Youth culture: Generational differences became permanent
Religious fundamentalism: Conservative reaction to modernism
Civil rights foundation: Harlem Renaissance inspired later movements

Click to understand 1920s cultural conflicts! 🎭

7.9 The Great Depression

Learning Objective:

Explain the causes of the Great Depression and analyze the government's responses at various levels.

📉 Stock Market Crash

Black Tuesday (October 29, 1929): Stock market collapsed, losing $30 billion in value in four days

Crash Causes:

Speculation bubble: Stock prices far exceeded company values
Margin buying: Investors borrowed heavily to buy stocks
Uneven wealth distribution: Top 1% owned 40% of nation's wealth
Overproduction: Industry produced more than consumers could buy
Weak banking system: No federal insurance, bank failures common

🏭 Economic Collapse

Depression Statistics:

Unemployment: Rose from 3% to 25% (1929-1933)
Bank failures: 5,000 banks closed, $1 billion in deposits lost
Industrial production: Fell by 50%
Farm income: Dropped by 60%
International trade: Declined by 40%

🌪️ Dust Bowl

Environmental Disaster (1930-1936): Severe drought and poor farming practices created massive dust storms

Dust Bowl Impact:

100 million acres: Topsoil blown away by wind storms
"Okies" migration: 350,000 people fled to California
Agricultural devastation: Crop failures worsened rural poverty
Health problems: "Dust pneumonia" from inhaling particles
John Steinbeck: "The Grapes of Wrath" depicted migrant struggles

🏠 Social Impact

Human Consequences:

Homelessness: "Hoovervilles" - shanty towns in cities
Hunger: Bread lines, soup kitchens fed millions
Family breakdown: Men abandoned families, marriage rates fell
Mental health: Suicide rates increased dramatically
Lost generation: Youth couldn't find work or marry

👨‍💼 Hoover's Response

Limited Government Intervention:

Voluntary cooperation: Asked businesses not to cut wages
Reconstruction Finance Corporation (1932): Loans to banks and businesses
Public works: Limited federal construction projects
No direct relief: Refused federal aid to individuals
Rugged individualism: Believed private charity sufficient

📊 Global Depression

International Economic Crisis:

European bank failures: Austrian and German banks collapsed
Trade wars: Hawley-Smoot Tariff worsened international trade
Gold standard collapse: Countries abandoned fixed currency values
Political instability: Economic crisis enabled fascist movements
Colonial impact: Raw material producers suffered

🎭 Cultural Response

Depression Era Culture:

Radio entertainment: "Amos 'n' Andy," FDR's fireside chats
Hollywood escapism: Musicals, comedies provided relief
Folk music revival: Woody Guthrie sang of working-class struggles
Photography: Dorothea Lange documented migrant workers
Literature: John Steinbeck, Richard Wright depicted hardship

🗳️ 1932 Election

Roosevelt Victory: FDR defeated Hoover 472-59 electoral votes, promising "New Deal for American people"

Campaign Themes:

Change promised: Roosevelt offered active government response
Forgotten man: Appeal to ordinary Americans suffering
Optimism: Confidence that depression could be ended
Experimentation: Willingness to try new approaches
Democratic landslide: Party gained control of Congress

Click to understand Depression's devastating impact! 📉

7.10 The New Deal

Learning Objective:

Explain how the Great Depression and the New Deal impacted American political, social, and economic life over time.

🏃 First Hundred Days

March-June 1933: Roosevelt pushed 15 major bills through Congress to address banking, unemployment, and agriculture

Emergency Banking Act (March 9, 1933):

Bank holiday: Closed all banks for four days
Federal inspection: Only sound banks allowed to reopen
Fireside chat: FDR explained banking system on radio
Public confidence restored: Deposits returned to banks
FDIC created: Federal deposit insurance (1934)

💼 Relief, Recovery, Reform

Three R's of New Deal:

Category	Goal	Major Programs	Target Population
Relief	Help unemployed and poor	FERA, CWA, WPA, CCC	Unemployed workers, families
Recovery	Restart economic growth	NRA, AAA, PWA, TVA	Businesses, farmers, regions
Reform	Prevent future depressions	SEC, FDIC, Wagner Act, Social Security	Financial system, workers

🌱 Agricultural Adjustment Act

AAA (1933):

Production controls: Paid farmers to reduce crop acreage
Price supports: Government bought surplus crops
Processing taxes: Food processors funded farm subsidies
Controversy: Destroyed crops while people went hungry
Supreme Court: Declared AAA unconstitutional (1936)

🏭 National Recovery Administration

NRA (1933-1935):

Industry codes: Business agreements on wages, prices, production
Blue Eagle: Symbol for participating businesses
Section 7(a): Guaranteed workers' right to organize
Hugh Johnson: Administrator promoted voluntary compliance
Failure: Declared unconstitutional, ineffective

👨‍💼 Work Programs

Employment Relief:

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): 3 million young men worked on conservation
Public Works Administration (PWA): $3.3 billion for infrastructure
Civil Works Administration (CWA): Temporary jobs for 4 million
Works Progress Administration (WPA): 8.5 million employed 1935-1943
National Youth Administration: Part-time jobs for students

⚡ Tennessee Valley Authority

TVA (1933):

Regional development: Seven-state area improved
Flood control: Dams prevented river flooding
Electricity generation: Cheap power for rural areas
Navigation: Rivers made suitable for shipping
Conservation: Reforestation and soil conservation

🏛️ Second New Deal (1935)

Left Turn: Roosevelt moved toward more liberal programs after conservative Supreme Court decisions

Social Security Act (1935):

Old-age pensions: Federal retirement system
Unemployment insurance: Temporary benefits for jobless
Aid to dependent children: Welfare for single mothers
Disability insurance: Support for disabled workers
Payroll taxes: Workers and employers funded system

👷 Labor Rights

Wagner Act (1935):

Collective bargaining: Protected workers' right to organize
National Labor Relations Board: Enforced labor rights
Unfair labor practices: Prohibited company interference
Union growth: Membership increased dramatically
CIO formation: Industrial unions organized unskilled workers

⚖️ Court-Packing Plan

1937 Crisis: Roosevelt proposed adding six justices to Supreme Court after it struck down New Deal programs

Constitutional Confrontation:

Conservative court: "Four Horsemen" blocked New Deal
FDR's frustration: Court declared key programs unconstitutional
Public opposition: Plan seen as threat to judicial independence
"Switch in time": Justice Roberts changed position
Political cost: Conservative coalition formed against FDR

🎨 Cultural Programs

Federal Arts Projects:

Federal Art Project: Employed 5,000 artists, murals in public buildings
Federal Writers' Project: Created American Guide Series
Federal Theatre Project: Brought drama to communities nationwide
Federal Music Project: Orchestras and music education
Historical Records Survey: Preserved American historical documents

📊 New Deal Assessment

New Deal Successes and Limitations:

Area	Successes	Limitations
Employment	Millions got work relief jobs	Unemployment remained high until WWII
Banking	FDIC restored confidence, no major failures	Conservative banking practices limited credit
Agriculture	Farm prices stabilized, conservation promoted	Tenant farmers and sharecroppers hurt
Labor	Union rights protected, wages increased	Many workers still unorganized
Social Welfare	Safety net created for elderly, unemployed	Benefits limited, many groups excluded

🎯 Long-term Impact

New Deal Legacy:

Federal government role: Expanded responsibility for economic welfare
Presidential power: Strengthened executive branch
Democratic coalition: Urban workers, minorities, South united
Regulatory state: Federal oversight of business and finance
Social safety net: Permanent programs for economic security

Click to understand New Deal's transformation! 🏛️

7.11 Interwar Foreign Policy

Learning Objective:

Explain the similarities and differences in attitudes toward the use of United States military power in various conflicts.

🕊️ Isolationist Sentiment

Return to Isolationism:

Senate rejection: Refused to join League of Nations
Disillusionment: WWI seen as European conflict, not American interest
Economic focus: Domestic prosperity more important than foreign involvement
Geographic security: Oceans provided natural protection
Immigrant populations: Ethnic loyalties complicated foreign policy

💰 Economic Diplomacy

Washington Naval Conference (1921-22): Nine-Power Treaty reduced naval armaments, guaranteed China's independence

Arms Control Treaties:

Five-Power Treaty: 5:5:3 naval ratio for U.S., Britain, Japan
Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928): 62 nations outlawed war
London Naval Treaty (1930): Further naval limitations
Dawes Plan (1924): Restructured German reparations
Young Plan (1929): Reduced German payments further

🌎 Latin American Relations

Good Neighbor Policy:

Non-intervention: Renounced right to intervene in Latin America
Troop withdrawals: Marines left Haiti (1934), Nicaragua (1933)
Platt Amendment repeal (1934): Ended special rights in Cuba
Economic cooperation: Trade agreements and cultural exchange
Pan-American conferences: Multilateral diplomacy

🏯 Asian Policy

Manchurian Crisis (1931): Japan invaded Manchuria, League of Nations ineffective

U.S. Response to Japanese Expansion:

Stimson Doctrine (1932): Refused to recognize territorial changes by force
No military action: Only moral condemnation of Japan
Open Door reaffirmed: Continued support for China's integrity
Naval buildup: Increased Pacific fleet strength
Diplomatic protests: Formal objections to Japanese actions

🛡️ Neutrality Acts

Congressional Isolationism:

Neutrality Act of 1935: Arms embargo on all warring nations
Neutrality Act of 1936: Banned loans to belligerents
Neutrality Act of 1937: "Cash and carry" for non-military goods
Nye Committee: Senate investigation blamed WWI on munitions makers
Public opinion: 70% opposed foreign involvement

⚡ European Crisis

Spanish Civil War (1936-39): U.S. maintained neutrality despite fascist-communist conflict

Rising Fascist Threat:

Hitler's aggression: Reoccupied Rhineland, annexed Austria
Munich Conference (1938): Britain, France appeased Hitler
American ambivalence: Wanted to avoid war but opposed fascism
"Quarantine" speech (1937): FDR suggested isolating aggressors
Kristallnacht (1938): Nazi persecution of Jews shocked Americans

💥 War Begins in Europe

September 1, 1939: Germany invaded Poland, Britain and France declared war

American Response:

Proclamation of neutrality: FDR declared U.S. neutral
Revised Neutrality Act (1939): "Cash and carry" for all goods
Public sympathy: Majority supported Allies but opposed war
Destroyer Deal (1940): 50 destroyers for British bases
Selective Service (1940): First peacetime draft

🗳️ Election of 1940

Roosevelt's Third Term: FDR defeated Wendell Willkie, promised to keep America out of war

Campaign Issues:

Foreign policy: Both candidates supported aid to Britain
War fears: Voters worried about involvement
Two-term tradition: Washington's precedent broken
Defense buildup: Both parties supported preparedness
Unity maintained: Bipartisan foreign policy

🤝 Lend-Lease

Lend-Lease Act (March 1941): $7 billion to Britain, "Arsenal of Democracy"

Aid to Allies:

Britain first: Churchill requested American aid
Creative financing: Lend equipment, repay after war
Congressional debate: Isolationists opposed "war" bill
Extended to USSR: Aid to Soviet Union after German invasion
Undeclared war: U.S. Navy escorted convoys

🌊 Atlantic Charter

August 1941: Roosevelt and Churchill met secretly to plan postwar world

Charter Principles:

Self-determination: Peoples choose their own government
Economic cooperation: Free trade and prosperity
Collective security: International peacekeeping organization
Disarmament: Reduce weapons after war
Four Freedoms: Speech, worship, want, fear

Click to understand interwar foreign policy! 🌍

7.12 World War II: Mobilization

Learning Objective:

Explain the causes and effects of the victory of the United States and its allies over the Axis powers.

💥 Pearl Harbor Attack

December 7, 1941: Japanese surprise attack killed 2,400 Americans, sank 18 ships

Road to War:

Japanese expansion: China war since 1937, needed resources
U.S. economic pressure: Oil embargo forced Japanese decision
Failed negotiations: Diplomatic talks collapsed
"Date which will live in infamy": Roosevelt's war message
Congress declaration: War declared with one dissenting vote

🏭 Industrial Mobilization

"Arsenal of Democracy":

War Production Board: Converted civilian to military production
Defense contracts: $175 billion to manufacturers
Synthetic materials: Rubber, nylon replaced scarce resources
Shipbuilding: Liberty ships mass-produced
Aircraft production: 300,000 planes manufactured

👷 Labor Force Changes

Workforce Transformation:

Full employment: Unemployment fell to 1.9%
Women workers: 6 million women entered workforce
"Rosie the Riveter": Symbol of female war workers
African American migration: 1.2 million moved north for jobs
Mexican workers: Bracero Program brought agricultural labor

💰 Financing the War

War Costs and Revenue:

$304 billion total: Ten times more expensive than WWI
War bonds: $156 billion raised from public
Income tax expansion: Covered 40 million Americans
Payroll deduction: Withholding system introduced
Deficit spending: National debt increased sixfold

🏠 Home Front Organization

Civilian Participation:

Rationing: Gasoline, meat, sugar, shoes limited
Scrap drives: Collected metal, rubber, paper
Victory gardens: 20 million families grew vegetables
Civil defense: Air raid wardens, blackout drills
War bonds drives: Hollywood stars promoted purchases

👨‍💼 Government Controls

Economic Regulation:

Office of Price Administration: Controlled prices and rent
War Labor Board: Mediated labor disputes
National War Labor Board: Limited wage increases
Smith-Connally Act (1943): Restricted wartime strikes
Revenue Act (1942): "Victory Tax" on all income

🏯 Japanese American Internment

Executive Order 9066 (February 1942): Authorized removal of Japanese Americans from West Coast

Wartime Injustice:

120,000 people: Two-thirds were American citizens
Ten camps: Remote locations in western states
Property loss: Forced to sell belongings at huge losses
Constitutional violation: No due process or evidence of disloyalty
442nd Regiment: Japanese American unit highly decorated

👩 Women's Roles

🔬 Scientific Mobilization

Research and Development:

Manhattan Project: $2 billion atomic bomb program
Radar development: MIT Radiation Laboratory
Penicillin production: Mass production saved lives
Jet engines: Advanced aircraft propulsion
Proximity fuzes: Improved artillery accuracy

📊 Mobilization Statistics

WWII Mobilization Impact:

Category	1941	1945	Change
Military Personnel	1.8 million	12.1 million	+573%
Defense Spending	$6.4 billion	$81.2 billion	+1169%
Female Workers	14.6 million	19.4 million	+33%
GNP	$125 billion	$212 billion	+70%
Federal Employees	1.4 million	3.8 million	+171%

🌟 Social Impact

Click to understand total war mobilization! 🏭

7.13 World War II: Military

Learning Objective:

Explain the causes and effects of the victory of the United States and its allies over the Axis Powers.

🌍 Global Strategy

Allied Grand Strategy:

"Europe First": Defeat Germany before focusing on Japan
Coalition warfare: Coordinate with Britain, Soviet Union
Two-front war: Force Germany to fight on multiple fronts
Strategic bombing: Destroy enemy industrial capacity
Amphibious operations: Island-hopping and cross-channel invasion

🌊 Pacific Theater

Battle of Midway (June 3-6, 1942): Decisive naval victory stopped Japanese expansion

Pacific Campaign:

Doolittle Raid (April 1942): Bombed Japan, boosted morale
Guadalcanal (1942-43): First major Allied ground victory
Island-hopping: Bypassed strong Japanese positions
Leyte Gulf (October 1944): Largest naval battle in history
Iwo Jima and Okinawa (1945): Costly victories near Japan

🇪🇺 European Theater

D-Day (June 6, 1944): Allied invasion of Normandy opened second front in Europe

European Campaign:

North Africa (1942-43): Operation Torch, defeat of Rommel
Italy invasion (1943): Sicily and mainland campaigns
Normandy landings: 150,000 troops on first day
Liberation of Paris (August 1944): Allied advance across France
Battle of the Bulge (December 1944): Last German offensive failed

👨‍✈️ Air War

Strategic Bombing:

Combined Bomber Offensive: Round-the-clock bombing of Germany
Precision bombing: American daylight attacks on military targets
Dresden (February 1945): Controversial firebombing of German city
Tokyo raids (March 1945): Incendiary bombs killed 100,000 civilians
Fighter escorts: P-51 Mustangs protected bombers

👥 Military Leadership

Key American Commanders:

Commander	Position	Theater	Major Achievements
Dwight Eisenhower	Supreme Allied Commander	Europe	D-Day planning, coalition leadership
Douglas MacArthur	Southwest Pacific Commander	Pacific	Philippines return, Japan occupation
Chester Nimitz	Pacific Fleet Commander	Pacific	Midway victory, island campaigns
George Patton	Third Army Commander	Europe	Rapid advances across France
Omar Bradley	12th Army Group Commander	Europe	Normandy breakout, soldier's general

☢️ Manhattan Project

Trinity Test (July 16, 1945): First atomic bomb successfully tested in New Mexico

Atomic Bomb Development:

Einstein's letter (1939): Warned Roosevelt of German bomb research
Los Alamos Laboratory: J. Robert Oppenheimer directed scientific team
Industrial scale: 130,000 workers at multiple sites
International scientists: European refugee physicists participated
Secrecy: Truman unaware until becoming president

🏙️ Atomic Bombings

Hiroshima (August 6, 1945): "Little Boy" killed 80,000 instantly, 200,000 total

Nagasaki (August 9, 1945): "Fat Man" killed 40,000 instantly, 140,000 total

Decision to Use Atomic Weapons:

Truman's choice: Avoid invasion casualties estimated at 1 million
Alternative considered: Demonstration bombing rejected
Soviet factor: End war before USSR entered Pacific
Unconditional surrender: Force Japan's complete capitulation
Moral controversy: Debate over civilian targeting

🏁 War's End

V-E Day (May 8, 1945): Germany surrendered unconditionally after Hitler's suicide

V-J Day (August 15, 1945): Japan announced surrender after atomic bombings and Soviet entry

Surrender Terms:

Unconditional surrender: No negotiated peace, complete Allied control
Occupation: Allied forces controlled Germany and Japan
War crimes trials: Nuremberg and Tokyo tribunals
Democratization: New governments established
Demilitarization: Armed forces disbanded

💀 Holocaust

Nazi Genocide:

6 million Jews: Systematic murder in concentration camps
Other victims: Roma, disabled, political prisoners, POWs
American knowledge: Reports reached U.S. by 1942
Limited response: Refugee quotas not increased
Liberation: Allied forces discovered camps 1944-45

📊 War Casualties and Costs

WWII Human and Economic Costs:

Country	Military Deaths	Civilian Deaths	Economic Cost
United States	405,000	1,700	$304 billion
Soviet Union	8.7 million	13.7 million	$192 billion
Germany	4.3 million	1.8 million	$272 billion
Japan	2.1 million	500,000	$56 billion
Britain	383,000	67,000	$120 billion

🏆 Victory Factors

Reasons for Allied Victory:

Industrial capacity: Allied production vastly exceeded Axis
Natural resources: Control of oil, rubber, metals
Manpower: Larger population base
Technology: Radar, code-breaking, atomic bomb
Coalition unity: Effective Allied cooperation
Geographic advantages: Fighting on multiple fronts

Click to understand military victory! 🏆

7.14 Postwar Diplomacy

Learning Objective:

Explain the consequences of U.S. involvement in World War II.

🤝 Wartime Conferences

Tehran Conference (November 1943): Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin planned second front and postwar cooperation

Yalta Conference (February 1945): Big Three divided occupation zones, agreed on UN structure

Potsdam Conference (July 1945): Truman, Churchill/Attlee, Stalin addressed German reconstruction

Yalta Agreements:

Germany divided: Four occupation zones (U.S., Britain, France, USSR)
Eastern Europe: Stalin promised free elections (later violated)
United Nations: Structure agreed upon, Soviet role defined
Japan war: USSR would enter Pacific war within 3 months
Poland: Borders shifted west, communist government installed

🌍 United Nations

San Francisco Conference (April-June 1945): 50 nations founded United Nations

UN Structure:

Security Council: Five permanent members with veto power
General Assembly: All members with equal vote
Secretariat: Administrative body
International Court of Justice: Legal disputes
Trusteeship Council: Administered former colonies

💰 Economic Planning

Bretton Woods Conference (July 1944): Established postwar international economic system

International Economic Institutions:

International Monetary Fund: Stabilized currency exchange rates
World Bank: Provided reconstruction and development loans
Dollar standard: U.S. currency became global reserve
Fixed exchange rates: Currencies tied to dollar
Free trade promotion: Reduced barriers to commerce

🏛️ Occupation Policies

Germany Occupation:

Denazification: Removed Nazi officials and ideology
Democratization: Established democratic institutions
Demilitarization: Disbanded armed forces
Decentralization: Broke up large corporations
Reparations: Industrial equipment removed

Japan Occupation:

MacArthur's rule: Supreme Commander Allied Powers
New constitution (1947): Democratic government, renounced war
Land reform: Distributed land to tenant farmers
Women's rights: Political and social equality granted
Economic reform: Dissolved zaibatsu monopolies

⚡ Growing Tensions

Soviet-American Disagreements:

Eastern Europe: Stalin installed communist governments
Germany: Disagreed over reparations and unification
Atomic weapons: U.S. monopoly created suspicion
Ideology: Capitalism vs. communism conflict
Spheres of influence: Competition for global control

🔬 Atomic Diplomacy

Nuclear Weapons and Diplomacy:

Atomic monopoly: U.S. sole nuclear power 1945-1949
Baruch Plan (1946): Proposed international atomic control
Soviet rejection: USSR refused inspection system
Arms race begun: Competition for nuclear weapons
Deterrence theory: Nuclear weapons prevent war

📊 War's Global Impact

World Power Balance 1945:

Nation	Status 1939	Status 1945	Change
United States	Regional power	Global superpower	Dramatic rise
Soviet Union	Regional power	Global superpower	Major expansion
Britain	Global empire	Declining power	Imperial decline
France	Major power	Weakened state	Significant decline
Germany/Japan	Major powers	Occupied territories	Complete defeat

🌏 Decolonization Begins

End of European Empires:

Atlantic Charter: Promised self-determination
European weakness: War destroyed colonial powers
Nationalist movements: Independence movements strengthened
Superpower rivalry: U.S. and USSR supported decolonization
UN principle: Self-determination enshrined

🏠 Domestic Impact

War's Effect on America:

Economic prosperity: War ended Depression permanently
Federal government growth: Permanent expansion of federal power
Social changes: Women, minorities gained opportunities
Global responsibilities: Permanent international commitments
Military-industrial complex: Defense contractors gained influence

🔮 Seeds of Cold War

Emerging Conflict:

Ideological divide: Democracy vs. communism
Power vacuum: German and Japanese defeat created instability
Nuclear weapons: New form of international competition
Economic systems: Capitalism vs. socialist planning
Spheres of influence: Competition for global control

Click to understand postwar transformation! 🌍

7.15 Comparison in Period 7

Learning Objective:

Compare the relative significance of the major events of the first half of the 20th century in shaping American identity.

🔄 Major Transformations

America 1890 vs. 1945:

Aspect	1890	1945	Transformation
International Role	Regional power	Global superpower	Dramatic expansion of influence
Government Role	Limited federal power	Active welfare state	New Deal expanded government
Economy	Laissez-faire capitalism	Regulated mixed economy	Federal economic management
Social Structure	Rural, agricultural	Urban, industrial	Complete economic transformation
Technology	Steam and steel	Atomic and electronic	Scientific revolution

⚖️ Continuities and Changes

What Changed:

Global leadership: From isolation to world power
Federal government: From limited to active role in society
Economic regulation: From laissez-faire to managed economy
Social reform: Progressive movements transformed society
Military power: From small army to global force
Technology: From industrial to atomic age

What Remained Constant:

Democratic institutions: Constitution and political system survived
Capitalist economy: Private enterprise remained dominant
Individual rights: Personal freedom remained core value
Racial inequality: Discrimination persisted despite reforms
Regional differences: Geographic diversity continued
Immigrant nation: Continued to attract newcomers

📊 Comparative Analysis of Major Events

Significance of Period 7 Events:

Event	Domestic Impact	International Impact	Long-term Significance
Spanish-American War	Created imperial debate	Made U.S. world power	Began American empire
Progressive Era	Reformed society and government	Influenced global reform	Expanded democracy
World War I	Expanded federal power	Made U.S. global creditor	Established world leadership
Great Depression	Destroyed faith in capitalism	Weakened democracies globally	Led to New Deal reforms
New Deal	Created welfare state	Model for social democracy	Permanent government expansion
World War II	Unified American society	Made U.S. global hegemon	Established superpower status

🏛️ Government Evolution

Federal Government Expansion:

Progressive Era: Regulation of business, consumer protection
World War I: Economic mobilization, expanded executive power
New Deal: Social welfare, economic management
World War II: Total mobilization, permanent military establishment
Result: Modern administrative state created

🌍 International Involvement

From Isolation to Leadership:

1890s: Reluctant imperialism, limited involvement
1900-1914: Regional power in Caribbean and Pacific
1917-1920: World War I intervention, then withdrawal
1920s-1930s: Economic involvement but political isolation
1941-1945: Global leadership accepted permanently

💰 Economic Development

Economic System Evolution:

Gilded Age legacy: Unregulated capitalism, extreme inequality
Progressive reforms: Antitrust laws, business regulation
War economies: Government direction of production
Great Depression: Market failure, need for intervention
New Deal: Mixed economy, social safety net
WWII: Keynesian economics, permanent military spending

👥 Social Changes

🎭 Cultural Evolution

American Identity Development:

Progressive optimism: Faith in reform and progress
1920s modernism: Urban, cosmopolitan culture
Depression realism: Recognition of system limitations
WWII unity: Common purpose against fascism
Global responsibility: Acceptance of world leadership role

🎯 Most Significant Changes

Ranking Period 7 Transformations:

Federal government expansion: Most lasting change in American system
Global superpower status: Permanent international leadership role
Industrial economy maturation: Modern economic system established
Democratic reforms: Expanded political participation
Social welfare system: Government responsibility for citizen welfare
Military-industrial complex: Permanent defense establishment

📚 Historical Significance

Period 7 Legacy:

Modern America created: Foundations of contemporary society established
Global leadership accepted: America became world's dominant power
Government activism normalized: Federal intervention became expected
Democratic ideals promoted: Human rights and freedom championed globally
Technology leadership: Scientific and industrial innovation

❓ Essential Questions

Key Questions for Period 7:

How did America transform from a regional to a global power?
What caused the expansion of federal government authority?
How did economic crises lead to government intervention?
What were the costs and benefits of American global leadership?
How did wars accelerate social and political change?
What continuities persisted despite major transformations?
How did technology change warfare and society?

Click to understand Period 7's transformative impact! 🇺🇸

📖 Complete Unit 7 Summary & AP Exam Strategies

🎯 Key Themes to Master

American Imperialism: From continental to overseas empire
Progressive Reform: Government activism and social improvement
World War I: Global conflict and domestic mobilization
Cultural Conflicts: 1920s tensions between modern and traditional
Economic Crisis: Great Depression and its causes
New Deal Response: Federal intervention and welfare state
World War II: Total war and American victory
Global Leadership: Emergence as world superpower

💡 AP Exam Success Strategies

For Multiple Choice Questions:

Understand cause-and-effect relationships in major events
Know specific Progressive Era reforms and their impacts
Compare WWI and WWII in terms of mobilization and outcomes
Analyze the relationship between economic crises and political change
Recognize connections between domestic reforms and international events

For Short Answer Questions:

Explain how America became a world power 1890-1920
Compare government responses to WWI and WWII
Analyze the effectiveness of Progressive Era reforms
Evaluate New Deal programs' successes and failures
Assess the impact of technology on warfare and society

For Long Essay Questions:

Evaluate the extent of change in federal government power 1890-1945
Analyze continuities and changes in American foreign policy
Compare the Progressive Era to the New Deal
Assess the impact of wars on American society and economy
Explain how America became a global superpower

📚 Essential Vocabulary

Must-Know Terms:

Imperialism, Spanish-American War, Philippines, Anti-Imperialist League, Progressivism, Muckrakers, Square Deal, New Freedom, 16th-19th Amendments, Pure Food and Drug Act, Clayton Act, Federal Reserve, Lusitania, Zimmermann Telegram, Fourteen Points, Red Scare, Palmer Raids, Sacco and Vanzetti, Quota Acts, Scopes Trial, Teapot Dome, Stock Market Crash, Hoovervilles, Dust Bowl, New Deal, Alphabet Soup Agencies, Court-packing, Pearl Harbor, Lend-Lease, Manhattan Project, D-Day, Holocaust, United Nations, Bretton Woods

📅 Critical Dates

Essential Chronology: 1898 (Spanish-American War), 1901 (McKinley assassination), 1906 (Pure Food and Drug Act), 1913 (Federal Reserve, 16th Amendment), 1917 (U.S. enters WWI), 1919 (Treaty of Versailles), 1920 (19th Amendment), 1924 (Immigration Act), 1929 (Stock Market Crash), 1933 (New Deal begins), 1935 (Social Security Act), 1939 (WWII begins Europe), 1941 (Pearl Harbor), 1944 (D-Day), 1945 (WWII ends, UN founded)

✍️ About the Author

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