Prescribed Subject 3: Move to Global War — PS3.2 German and Italian Expansion
Introduction
Between 1933 and 1939, expansionist ambitions in Germany and Italy, led by Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini, challenged the international status quo and paved the way to World War II. This transformation involved ideological shifts (Fascism, Nazism), deep economic crises, failed diplomacy, and appeasement—culminating in regional aggression and a shift in global power dynamics.
Focus: Fascist and Nazi ideology, economic issues, appeasement, the Abyssinia Crisis, the Nazi-Soviet Pact, and international responses.
Fascism & Nazism: Ideologies of Expansion
- Fascism: Originating with Mussolini in Italy, fascism promoted nationalism, strong leadership, anti-communism, militarism, and suppression of opposition—seeking to restore Roman grandeur.
- Nazism: Hitler’s regime combined fascist principles with racial hierarchy, anti-Semitism, and the quest for Lebensraum (living space) for Germans.
- Common Goals: Both sought to revise the post-WWI order, repudiate the Treaty of Versailles, and expand territorially.
- Methods: Propaganda, mass rallies, paramilitary forces, and one-party states ensured totalitarian control.
Fascist and Nazi ideologies harnessed public support through fear, myth, and promises of restoration, while eliminating pluralism and democracy.
Economic Issues Fueling Expansion
- Both Germany and Italy suffered economic crises: the Great Depression, mass unemployment, hyperinflation, and poverty destabilized society.
- Economic failure undermined faith in democracy and fueled support for radical leaders.
- Recovery plans (e.g., Nazi "autarky," public works, rearmament) justified aggressive expansion for resources and markets.
- Economic failure undermined faith in democracy and fueled support for radical leaders.
- Recovery plans (e.g., Nazi "autarky," public works, rearmament) justified aggressive expansion for resources and markets.
Formula (Economic Recovery): Economic\ Stability = \frac{Employment + Production}{Inflation + Deficits}
Higher employment and production relative to inflation and deficits signaled recovery, often sought through territorial expansion.
Higher employment and production relative to inflation and deficits signaled recovery, often sought through territorial expansion.
Appeasement and Its Consequences
- Definition: Appeasement refers to the policy of making concessions to aggressive powers (notably Hitler) to avoid conflict—especially by Britain and France.
- Key Events: Remilitarization of the Rhineland (1936), Anschluss with Austria (1938), Munich Agreement (1938, ceding Sudetenland).
- Consequences: Emboldened aggressors, made international institutions seem weak, and eroded deterrence.
- Debate: Seen by some as pragmatic in light of anti-war sentiment, but ultimately a catalyst for global conflict.
Appeasement delayed war but enabled the rearmament and expansion of totalitarian states.
The Abyssinia Crisis (1935–36)
| Event | Description | International Response |
|---|---|---|
| Italian Invasion of Abyssinia | Italy invades Ethiopia to build an empire, using modern arms against less-equipped defenders | League of Nations condemns aggression, imposes limited sanctions, fails to stop Italy |
| Impact | Demonstrates that "collective security" and the League are ineffective; encourages further Axis aggression | Britain and France prioritize strategic alliances over justice |
Failure to act in Abyssinia shows the weakness of the interwar peace system, undermining trust in diplomacy and security guarantees.
Nazi-Soviet Pact (August 1939)
- Germany and USSR sign a non-aggression pact (Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact), secretly agreeing to divide Eastern Europe.
- This deal enables Hitler to attack Poland without Soviet intervention, starting WWII.
- USSR also invades Eastern Poland, Baltic States, and Finland.
- This deal enables Hitler to attack Poland without Soviet intervention, starting WWII.
- USSR also invades Eastern Poland, Baltic States, and Finland.
Significance: The Pact stuns the world; it demonstrates the collapse of collective security and paves the way for total war.
International Responses
- League of Nations: Unable to enforce rules or collective action; its authority declines rapidly.
- Britain & France: Pursued appeasement, only declared war after Poland was invaded.
- USSR: Switched allegiances, ultimately joined Allies after Germany’s invasion in 1941.
- USA: Maintained isolationism until 1941 (Pearl Harbor), but provided material aid via "cash and carry" and Lend-Lease to Allies.
- Other Nations: Some supported the Axis, some the Allies, most tried to avoid entanglement.
International responses failed to contain aggression until war was unavoidable, exposing the weakness of diplomacy and collective security.
Conclusion
The expansion of Germany and Italy stemmed from ideological, economic, and diplomatic failures—accelerated by appeasement, ineffective responses, and cynical alliances. These crises reshaped the international system, setting the stage for the devastation of the Second World War and redefining global history.