⚔️ AP United States History - Unit 5

Civil War and Reconstruction, 1848–1877

Period 5: From sectional tensions through Civil War to the end of Reconstruction

5.0 Unit Overview: Toward the Civil War & Reconstruction (1848-1877)

Unit 5 Essential Question:

How did territorial expansion and sectional tensions lead to the Civil War, and what were the consequences of the war and Reconstruction for American society?

📊 Key Concepts Overview

Key Concept 5.1:

The United States became more connected with the world, pursued an expansionist foreign policy in the Western Hemisphere, and emerged as the destination for many migrants from other countries.

Key Concept 5.2:

Intensified by expansion and deepening regional divisions, debates over slavery and other economic, cultural, and political issues led the nation into civil war.

Key Concept 5.3:

The Union victory in the Civil War and the contested reconstruction of the South settled the issues of slavery and secession, but left unresolved many questions about the power of the federal government and citizenship rights.

⏰ Chronological Framework

1848-1854: Territorial expansion and compromise attempts

1854-1860: Political realignment and sectional crisis

1860-1865: Secession, Civil War, and Union victory

1865-1877: Reconstruction and its aftermath

🎯 Major Themes

Manifest Destiny: Territorial expansion and its consequences
Sectional Crisis: Growing tensions between North and South
Political Realignment: Collapse of Second Party System
Civil War: Military conflict and home front changes
Emancipation: End of slavery and freedom for African Americans
Reconstruction: Rebuilding the South and defining citizenship
Constitutional Changes: 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments
Failure of Reconstruction: Return of white supremacy

5.1 Contextualizing Period 5

Learning Objective:

Explain the context in which sectional conflict emerged in the period after 1848.

🌍 Global Context

The period from 1848-1877 occurred during a time of global political upheaval and economic transformation. Revolutions swept Europe in 1848, while nationalism and unification movements reshaped the political landscape worldwide.

International Developments:

European Revolutions (1848): Democratic movements challenged monarchies
Industrial Revolution: Technological advances transformed economies
Nationalism: Unification movements in Germany and Italy
Abolition movements: Growing international opposition to slavery
Immigration: Political and economic refugees sought opportunity in America

🇺🇸 American Context in 1848

Pre-existing Tensions:

Missouri Compromise (1820): Temporary solution to slavery expansion
Nullification Crisis (1832-33): Revealed state vs. federal authority tensions
Gag Rule Controversy: Debate over slavery petitions in Congress
Economic differences: Industrial North vs. agricultural South
Cultural divergence: Reform North vs. traditional South

⚡ Catalysts for Crisis

Mexican-American War Consequences:

Massive territorial gains: Mexican Cession doubled U.S. size
Wilmot Proviso: Attempted to ban slavery in new territories
California Gold Rush: Rapid population growth and statehood demands
Renewed slavery debate: Would new territories be free or slave?

🏛️ Political System Under Stress

Second Party System Weakening:

Whig Party divisions: Northern and Southern Whigs disagreed on slavery
Democratic tensions: Free Soil Democrats opposed party's slavery stance
Third parties emerging: Free Soil Party formed in 1848
Sectional loyalty: Regional interests increasingly trumped party loyalty

💡 Constitutional and Legal Framework

Constitutional Questions:

Territorial governance: Congressional power over territories unclear
State vs. federal authority: Who controls slavery policy?
Property rights: Slaveholders claimed constitutional protection
Popular sovereignty: Should territories decide slavery for themselves?

📊 Demographic and Economic Changes

Population and Economic Shifts:

Northern growth: Immigration and industrialization increased population
Western migration: Settlers moved to new territories
Economic divergence: North industrializing while South remained agricultural
Transportation revolution: Railroads connected regions but also highlighted differences

Click to understand the context of crisis! ⚡

5.2 Manifest Destiny

Learning Objective:

Explain the causes and effects of westward expansion from 1844 to 1877.

🌟 The Concept of Manifest Destiny

Definition and Origins:

John L. O'Sullivan (1845): Coined term "Manifest Destiny"
Divine mission: Belief that God destined America to spread across continent
Democratic ideals: Spread of American freedom and democracy
Racial superiority: Anglo-Saxon destiny to rule inferior races
Economic opportunity: Access to resources and markets

🗺️ Territorial Acquisitions

Texas Annexation (1845):

Texas Republic (1836-1845): Independent after winning independence from Mexico
Slavery issue: Texas allowed slavery, creating sectional tension
Joint resolution: Congress annexed Texas by majority vote rather than treaty
Mexican anger: Mexico never recognized Texas independence

Oregon Territory Settlement (1846): Peaceful resolution with Britain established 49th parallel as border, giving U.S. present-day Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and parts of Montana and Wyoming

💰 California Gold Rush

Gold Discovery and Migration:

James Marshall (1848): Discovered gold at Sutter's Mill
Mass migration: 300,000 "forty-niners" rushed to California
Rapid population growth: California population exploded from 14,000 to 300,000
Economic impact: $2 billion in gold extracted, fueled national economy
Social consequences: Diverse population, violence, environmental damage

🛤️ Transportation and Communication

Connecting the Continent:

Transcontinental railroad: Dream of coast-to-coast rail connection
Telegraph lines: Instant communication across vast distances
Overland trails: Oregon, California, and Mormon trails
Mail service: Pony Express and overland mail routes

🏞️ Impact on Native Americans

Devastating Consequences:

Land loss: Treaties forced tribes onto reservations
Cultural destruction: Traditional ways of life disrupted
Disease and violence: Epidemics and conflicts decimated populations
California Indians: Population fell from 150,000 to 30,000 (1848-1870)
Plains Wars: Ongoing conflicts over western lands

🌎 Environmental and Social Impact

Consequences of Expansion:

Environmental damage: Mining, farming, and grazing altered landscapes
Cultural diversity: Mexican, Chinese, Native American, and European populations
Economic development: Agriculture, mining, and commerce grew
Social tensions: Racial and ethnic conflicts
Political challenges: Governing distant territories

⚖️ Sectional Implications

Slavery Extension Debate:

Northern fears: Expansion of slave power in Congress
Southern demands: Equal access to territories for slaveholders
Constitutional questions: Congressional power over territorial slavery
Political consequences: Weakened national parties, strengthened sectional divisions

Click to explore Manifest Destiny's consequences! 🌟

5.3 The Mexican–American War

Learning Objective:

Explain the causes and effects of the Mexican–American War.

⚔️ Causes of War

Immediate Causes:

Texas annexation: Mexico viewed annexation as act of war
Border dispute: Texas claimed Rio Grande; Mexico insisted on Nueces River
Unpaid debts: Mexico owed money to American citizens
Slidell Mission (1845): Mexico refused to receive U.S. diplomat John Slidell
Military provocation: Polk ordered troops to disputed territory

Underlying Causes:

Manifest Destiny: American belief in continental expansion
California desire: Polk wanted to acquire California and New Mexico
Economic interests: Access to Pacific ports for Asian trade
Political pressure: Democrats promised territorial expansion

🗓️ Major Events and Timeline

April 1846 - Thornton Affair: Mexican forces attacked U.S. patrol in disputed territory; Polk declared "American blood shed on American soil"

May 1846 - War Declaration: Congress declared war on Mexico with Whig opposition

Major Campaigns:

Rio Grande Campaign: Zachary Taylor's forces won battles at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma
California Campaign: Bear Flag Revolt and U.S. naval forces secured California
New Mexico Campaign: Stephen Kearny captured Santa Fe without resistance
Northern Mexico: Taylor defeated Santa Anna at Battle of Buena Vista (1847)
Mexico City Campaign: Winfield Scott's amphibious landing at Veracruz, march to capital

September 1847 - Fall of Mexico City: Scott's forces captured Mexican capital after battles at Churubusco and Chapultepec

📜 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)

Treaty Terms:

Mexican Cession: Mexico ceded California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming
Rio Grande border: Confirmed Texas boundary at Rio Grande
$15 million payment: U.S. paid Mexico for territories
Debt assumption: U.S. assumed $3.25 million in Mexican debts to Americans
Citizenship rights: Mexican residents could become U.S. citizens

🏛️ Political Opposition

Whig Opposition:

Abraham Lincoln: Demanded proof of where "American blood" was shed
"Mr. Polk's War": Critics called it unnecessary aggression
Constitutional concerns: President's power to initiate war
Slavery extension fears: War would spread slavery to new territories

Wilmot Proviso (1846): David Wilmot proposed banning slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico; passed House but failed in Senate

📊 Consequences of the War

War's Impact:

Category	Positive Effects	Negative Effects
Territorial	Gained 525,000 square miles	Intensified slavery debate
Economic	Access to Pacific ports, gold	War costs, Mexican War debt
Political	Fulfilled Manifest Destiny	Weakened Whig Party, sectional tensions
Military	Trained future Civil War generals	Precedent for presidential war power
Social	National confidence and pride	Mexican-American population displacement

👥 Impact on Mexican Americans

Changed Status:

Legal citizenship: Treaty guaranteed citizenship rights
Land loss: Many lost property through legal challenges
Cultural discrimination: Faced prejudice and segregation
Economic marginalization: Reduced to low-wage labor
Political exclusion: Limited participation in government

🌟 Military Heroes and Political Careers

Future Political Leaders:

Zachary Taylor: War hero became 12th president (Whig)
Winfield Scott: 1852 Whig presidential nominee
Franklin Pierce: Democratic veteran became 14th president
Jefferson Davis: War hero, future Confederate president

Click to understand the war's consequences! ⚔️

5.4 The Compromise of 1850

Learning Objective:

Explain the relative significance of the effects of the Compromise of 1850.

⚡ Crisis of 1850

The Immediate Crisis:

California statehood: Wanted to enter as free state, would upset Senate balance
Texas-New Mexico border: Dispute over territorial boundaries
Utah and New Mexico: Territorial organization without slavery restrictions
Fugitive slaves: South demanded stronger enforcement
D.C. slave trade: Abolitionists wanted to end slavery in capital

🎭 Key Players

The Great Triumvirate's Final Act:

Henry Clay: "The Great Compromiser" proposed omnibus bill
Daniel Webster: "7th of March Speech" supported compromise
John C. Calhoun: Dying senator opposed compromise, warned of disunion
Stephen Douglas: Young senator shepherded individual bills through Congress
Millard Fillmore: New president supported compromise after Taylor's death

📋 Terms of the Compromise

Five-Part Compromise:

Measure	Terms	Sectional Winner
California Admission	Entered as free state	North
Utah/New Mexico Territories	Organized without slavery restriction (popular sovereignty)	South
Texas Border	Texas gave up New Mexico claims for $10 million debt relief	Both
Fugitive Slave Act	Strengthened enforcement of slave captures	South
D.C. Slave Trade	Banned slave trade (not slavery) in Washington D.C.	North

🚨 The Fugitive Slave Act

Controversial Enforcement:

Federal commissioners: Appointed to enforce law nationwide
No jury trial: Accused fugitives denied basic legal protections
Citizen cooperation: Required all citizens to assist in captures
Financial incentives: Commissioners paid more for returning than releasing
Penalties: $1,000 fine and imprisonment for helping fugitives

Northern Resistance:

Personal Liberty Laws: States passed laws to protect accused fugitives
Underground Railroad: Increased activity helping escaped slaves
Civil disobedience: Citizens refused to cooperate with enforcement
Rescue attempts: Dramatic rescues like Jerry rescue in Syracuse

📚 Cultural Impact

Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852): Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel, inspired by Fugitive Slave Act, sold 300,000 copies first year and dramatized slavery's cruelty

🏛️ Political Consequences

Short-term Effects:

Temporary peace: Reduced immediate secession threats
Party divisions: Both Whigs and Democrats split over compromise
Popular sovereignty: Became model for future territorial organization
Abolition growth: Fugitive Slave Act created more abolitionists

Long-term Consequences:

False peace: Compromise didn't resolve underlying issues
Sectional mistrust: Both sides felt betrayed by enforcement
Political realignment: Traditional parties continued to fracture
Constitutional crisis: Federal vs. state authority questions

📊 Assessment of Success

Why It Failed:

Fundamental disagreement: Moral vs. economic views of slavery
Enforcement problems: Fugitive Slave Act created more conflict
No finality: Slavery expansion issue would arise again
Sectional polarization: Moderates lost influence to extremists
Constitutional conflicts: State nullification vs. federal authority

Click to understand the compromise's limitations! ⚖️

5.5 Sectional Conflict: Regional Differences

Learning Objective:

Explain the effects of immigration from various parts of the world on American culture from 1844 to 1877.

🏭 Economic Differences

North vs. South Economic Systems:

Aspect	North	South
Economy	Industrial, commercial, diversified	Agricultural, cotton-based, slave labor
Labor	Free wage labor, immigrants	Enslaved labor, some free workers
Urbanization	Growing cities, factory towns	Rural, few large cities
Transportation	Extensive railroad network	Limited railroads, river transport
Investment	Manufacturing, infrastructure	Land and enslaved people

👥 Social and Cultural Differences

Northern Society:

Social mobility: Opportunities for advancement through education and work
Reform movements: Abolition, temperance, women's rights, education reform
Religious diversity: Multiple denominations, social gospel
Immigration: Irish, German, and other European immigrants
Free labor ideology: Dignity of work, self-improvement

Southern Society:

Hierarchical structure: Rigid class system based on race and land ownership
Honor culture: Personal reputation, dueling, violence
Conservative religion: Used Christianity to justify slavery
Rural lifestyle: Plantation and farm life, limited urbanization
Proslavery ideology: Slavery as "positive good"

🌊 Immigration and Nativism

Immigration Patterns (1840s-1850s):

Irish immigration: Potato famine drove Catholic Irish to America
German immigration: Political refugees and economic migrants
Chinese immigration: California Gold Rush attracted Chinese workers
Regional concentration: Most immigrants settled in Northern cities

Nativist Response:

Know-Nothing Party: Anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic political movement
Job competition: Native workers resented immigrant labor
Religious prejudice: Protestant fear of Catholic influence
Cultural conflicts: Language, customs, and political loyalty questions

🏛️ Political Philosophy Differences

Constitutional Interpretation:

Northern view: Federal government could restrict slavery expansion
Southern view: States' rights and property protection paramount
Slavery in territories: Congressional power vs. popular sovereignty
Fugitive slaves: State vs. federal enforcement authority

📚 Educational and Intellectual Differences

Educational Systems:

Northern education: Public schools, higher literacy rates, universities
Southern education: Private tutors for elite, limited public education
Intellectual life: North embraced reform ideas, South defended tradition
Press and literature: Different newspapers and books reflected regional values

🌾 Agricultural vs. Industrial Development

Economic Specialization:

Northern manufacturing: Textiles, iron, machinery, consumer goods
Southern agriculture: Cotton, tobacco, rice, sugar production
Western farming: Grain production, livestock, mining
Trade patterns: South exported raw materials, imported manufactured goods

🚂 Transportation Networks

Regional Transportation:

Northern railroads: Dense network connecting cities and markets
Southern railroads: Limited system, focused on moving crops to ports
Western trails: Overland routes for migration and trade
Sectional integration: Transportation linked regions but also highlighted differences

⛪ Religious Differences

Religious and Moral Divide:

Northern churches: Increasingly anti-slavery, social reform focused
Southern churches: Biblical justification for slavery, social stability
Denominational splits: Methodist, Baptist, and Presbyterian churches divided
Moral arguments: Slavery as sin vs. slavery as ordained by God

Click to understand growing sectional divide! 🔄

5.6 Failure of Compromise

Learning Objective:

Explain how regional differences related to slavery caused tension in the years leading up to the Civil War.

🌪️ Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)

Stephen Douglas's Miscalculation:

Popular sovereignty: Let territories decide slavery question
Missouri Compromise repeal: Allowed slavery north of 36°30' line
Railroad interests: Douglas wanted transcontinental railroad through Chicago
Southern support: Needed Southern votes for territorial organization

Northern Outrage:

"Crime against freedom": Violated 34-year-old compromise
Free soil anger: Opened all territories to potential slavery
Republican Party formation: Anti-slavery coalition emerged
Political realignment: Whig Party collapsed, new sectional parties formed

🩸 "Bleeding Kansas" (1854-1859)

Violence in Kansas Territory:

Competing governments: Pro-slavery Lecompton vs. anti-slavery Topeka
Border Ruffians: Pro-slavery Missourians crossed border to vote
New England Emigrant Aid Company: Funded anti-slavery settlers
Sack of Lawrence (1856): Pro-slavery forces attacked free-state town
Pottawatomie Creek Massacre: John Brown killed five pro-slavery settlers

🏛️ Congressional Violence

Preston Brooks-Charles Sumner Incident (1856): South Carolina Representative Brooks beat Massachusetts Senator Sumner unconscious on Senate floor after Sumner's "Crime Against Kansas" speech

Symbolic Significance:

Northern reaction: Outrage at Southern violence, Sumner became martyr
Southern reaction: Brooks became hero for defending Southern honor
Congressional breakdown: Violence showed failure of political process
Sectional polarization: Same event viewed completely differently

⚖️ Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)

Chief Justice Roger Taney's Ruling:

No black citizenship: African Americans could never be U.S. citizens
Property protection: Congress could not ban slavery in territories
Missouri Compromise unconstitutional: Violated Fifth Amendment property rights
Popular sovereignty invalid: Territories couldn't ban slavery either

Political Consequences:

Republican outrage: Court eliminated their entire platform
Democratic divisions: Northern Democrats couldn't accept ruling
Constitutional crisis: Conflicting interpretations of fundamental law
Sectional divide deepened: No political solution possible

📖 Lincoln-Douglas Debates (1858)

Key Issues and Positions:

Lincoln's position: "House divided cannot stand" - slavery must end eventually
Douglas's position: Popular sovereignty, don't care if slavery voted up or down
Freeport Doctrine: Douglas argued territories could exclude slavery despite Dred Scott
Moral dimension: Lincoln emphasized slavery's moral wrongness

Long-term Impact:

Lincoln's national profile: Debates made Lincoln Republican leader
Douglas hurt in South: Freeport Doctrine alienated Southern Democrats
Republican message: Articulated free labor ideology
Democratic split: Northern and Southern Democrats increasingly divided

🔥 John Brown's Raid (1859)

Harpers Ferry Raid:

Objective: Seize federal arsenal, arm enslaved people for rebellion
Failure: Local militia and federal troops captured Brown
Trial and execution: Brown became martyr for antislavery cause
Southern fears: Convinced South that North supported slave rebellion

💥 Complete Breakdown of Compromise

Why Compromise Failed:

Moral absolutism: Both sides saw slavery as moral issue, not political
Constitutional crisis: Fundamental disagreement over federal power
Economic incompatibility: Free vs. slave labor systems
Political polarization: Moderates lost influence to extremists
Cultural divide: Two incompatible ways of life

Click to understand why compromise failed! 💥

5.7 Election of 1860 and Secession

Learning Objective:

Explain the political causes of the Civil War.

🗳️ Election of 1860

Four-Way Presidential Race:

Candidate	Party	Platform	Regional Support
Abraham Lincoln	Republican	No slavery expansion, free labor	North
Stephen Douglas	Northern Democrat	Popular sovereignty	Border states, some North
John Breckinridge	Southern Democrat	Federal protection of slavery	Deep South
John Bell	Constitutional Union	Preserve Union, avoid slavery issue	Upper South

Election Results:

Lincoln victory: 180 electoral votes, 40% popular vote
Sectional election: Lincoln won every Northern state
Southern rejection: Lincoln received almost no Southern votes
Democratic split: Douglas and Breckinridge divided Democratic vote
Constitutional Union failure: Bell won only three border states

🚪 Secession Crisis

December 20, 1860 - South Carolina Secession: First state to leave Union after Lincoln's election

Secession Justifications:

State sovereignty: States voluntarily joined Union, could voluntarily leave
Constitutional compact: Federal government violated original agreement
Self-defense: Republican Party threatened Southern way of life
Economic protection: Preserve $4 billion investment in enslaved people
Racial control: Maintain white supremacy and social order

February 1861 - Confederate States of America: Seven states formed new nation with Jefferson Davis as president

🤝 Compromise Attempts

Last-Ditch Efforts:

Crittenden Compromise: Constitutional amendments to protect slavery
Peace Convention: Virginia-sponsored meeting in Washington
Corwin Amendment: Proposed constitutional protection for slavery
Lincoln's position: No compromise on slavery expansion

👑 Lincoln's Response

Lincoln's Inaugural Address (March 4, 1861):

No secession: Union is perpetual, secession illegal
No aggression: Would not attack South unless attacked first
Enforce federal law: Must collect tariffs and maintain federal property
Appeal to Union: "We are not enemies, but friends"
Slavery assurance: Would not interfere with slavery where it existed

🏰 Fort Sumter Crisis

The Spark of War:

Strategic location: Federal fort in Charleston Harbor
Supply crisis: Fort running out of food and supplies
Lincoln's dilemma: Resupply fort or abandon federal authority
Confederate decision: Attack fort before reinforcements arrive
April 12, 1861: Confederate bombardment began Civil War

🌊 Second Wave of Secession

Upper South Secession: Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas joined Confederacy after Fort Sumter

Border States:

Kentucky: Remained in Union despite pro-Confederate sentiment
Missouri: Bitter internal conflict, remained in Union
Maryland: Federal control prevented secession
Delaware: Remained loyal to Union
West Virginia: Broke away from Virginia, joined Union (1863)

⚖️ Constitutional Issues

Competing Legal Arguments:

Southern position: Constitution was compact, states could withdraw
Northern position: Union predated Constitution, was perpetual
Majority rule: Could democratic majority force minority to remain?
Revolutionary right: Right of revolution vs. legal rebellion

📊 Resources and Preparation

Union vs. Confederacy in 1861:

Resource	Union	Confederacy
Population	22 million	9 million (3.5 million enslaved)
Railroad Miles	20,000	9,000
Manufacturing	90% of nation's capacity	10% of nation's capacity
Navy	90 ships	0 ships
Advantages	Industry, population, navy, railroads	Military leadership, defensive war, cotton

Click to understand democratic breakdown! 🗳️

5.8 Military Conflict in the Civil War

Learning Objective:

Explain the various factors that contributed to the Union victory in the Civil War.

📈 War Strategies

Union Strategy:

Anaconda Plan: Naval blockade to strangle Southern economy
Control Mississippi: Split Confederacy in half
Capture Richmond: Confederate capital and transportation hub
Total war: Destroy Southern ability and will to fight
Naval supremacy: Use superior fleet to control coasts and rivers

Confederate Strategy:

Defensive war: Protect Southern territory and wear down Union
Foreign intervention: Gain European recognition and support
King Cotton diplomacy: Use cotton exports to pressure Europe
Attrition: Make war so costly North would give up
Political pressure: Undermine Northern war support

⚔️ Major Battles and Campaigns

Eastern Theater:

First Bull Run (1861): Confederate victory showed war would be long and bloody
Peninsula Campaign (1862): McClellan's failed attempt to capture Richmond
Second Bull Run (1862): Lee defeated Pope, threatened Washington
Antietam (1862): Bloodiest single day, stopped Lee's invasion of Maryland
Gettysburg (1863): Lee's second invasion failed, turning point of war

Western Theater:

Fort Henry/Donelson (1862): Grant's victories opened Tennessee River
Shiloh (1862): Bloodiest battle to date, Union held Tennessee
Vicksburg (1863): Grant's siege gave Union control of Mississippi River
Chickamauga (1863): Confederate victory in Georgia
Atlanta Campaign (1864): Sherman captured key Confederate city

👨‍💼 Key Military Leaders

Union vs. Confederate Leadership:

Position	Union Leaders	Confederate Leaders
Commander-in-Chief	Abraham Lincoln	Jefferson Davis
General-in-Chief	Ulysses S. Grant (1864-1865)	Robert E. Lee (1865)
Eastern Commander	Various (McClellan, Hooker, Meade)	Robert E. Lee
Western Commander	William T. Sherman	Joseph E. Johnston, John Bell Hood
Cavalry Leaders	Philip Sheridan	J.E.B. Stuart, Nathan Bedford Forrest

🌊 Naval Warfare

Union Naval Dominance:

Blockade: 3,500 miles of coastline sealed off
River gunboats: Controlled Mississippi and tributaries
Amphibious operations: Combined army-navy attacks
International waters: Hunted Confederate commerce raiders

Monitor vs. Virginia (1862): First ironclad battle revolutionized naval warfare

🔥 Total War

Sherman's March to the Sea (1864):

Objective: Destroy Southern infrastructure and morale
Route: Atlanta to Savannah, 300-mile path of destruction
Tactics: "Hard war" against civilian resources
Psychological impact: Proved Confederacy couldn't protect its people

Grant's Overland Campaign (1864): Continuous pressure on Lee despite heavy casualties at Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor

📊 Factors in Union Victory

Union Advantages:

Industrial capacity: Manufactured weapons, supplies, and equipment
Transportation: Extensive railroad network for moving troops and supplies
Population: Larger manpower pool for military and production
Naval power: Blockade and river control
Financial resources: Better ability to finance long war
Immigration: Continued influx of workers and soldiers

Confederate Weaknesses:

Limited industry: Couldn't produce enough weapons and supplies
Transportation breakdown: Railroad system deteriorated
Inflation: Confederate currency became worthless
Manpower shortages: Smaller population, slave labor couldn't fight
Internal divisions: State rights vs. Confederate nationalism

🏁 End of the War

April 9, 1865 - Appomattox Court House: Lee surrendered to Grant, effectively ending the Civil War

Terms of Surrender:

Generous terms: Confederate soldiers could go home with horses
No treason trials: Officers and men wouldn't be prosecuted
Dignity preserved: Respectful treatment of defeated enemy
National healing: Grant's magnanimity set tone for peace

Click to understand modern warfare! ⚔️

5.9 Government Policies during the Civil War

Learning Objective:

Explain how Lincoln's leadership during the Civil War impacted American ideals over the course of the war.

📜 Emancipation

Emancipation Proclamation (January 1, 1863): Lincoln declared freedom for enslaved people in rebellious states

Limited but Revolutionary:

Military necessity: Justified as war measure, not moral crusade
Limited scope: Only freed enslaved people in Confederate states
Border states excluded: Slavery continued in loyal states
War aims changed: From preserving Union to ending slavery
International impact: Prevented European intervention

👨‍💼 Expansion of Presidential Power

Lincoln's Wartime Powers:

Habeas corpus suspension: Detained suspected traitors without trial
Military arrests: Civilians tried by military tribunals
Press censorship: Closed opposition newspapers
Emancipation: Used war powers to free enslaved people
Emergency spending: Authorized expenditures without Congress

Constitutional Justification:

Commander-in-Chief: Used military authority broadly
Preserve Union: Presidential oath to preserve Constitution
Emergency powers: Crisis required extraordinary measures
Congressional approval: Later ratified many actions

💰 Economic Policies

Republican Economic Program:

Homestead Act (1862): 160 acres free to settlers who farmed for 5 years
Pacific Railway Act (1862): Federal land grants and loans for transcontinental railroad
Morrill Tariff (1861): High protective tariffs for Northern industry
National Banking Act (1863): Uniform national currency and banking system
Morrill Land Grant Act (1862): Federal land for state agricultural colleges

💵 Financing the War

Union Financing Methods:

Bonds: War bonds sold to public, raised $2.6 billion
Taxes: First federal income tax (3% on incomes over $800)
Tariffs: High import duties generated revenue
Greenbacks: Paper money not backed by gold or silver
Total cost: Union spent $3.4 billion on war

👥 Mobilizing the Population

Military Recruitment:

Volunteers: Initially relied on state militias and volunteers
Conscription Act (1863): First federal draft in American history
$300 commutation: Could buy way out of service
Substitutes: Could hire someone else to serve
Draft riots: New York riots protested unfair system

🏛️ Confederate Government Policies

Confederate Challenges:

States' rights: Conflict between Confederate and state authority
Conscription: First American draft (1862), earlier than Union
Impressment: Government seized private property for war effort
Tax in kind: Farmers paid taxes with crops, not money
Inflation: Confederate currency lost 95% of value

🌍 International Relations

Diplomatic Success:

European neutrality: Prevented Confederate recognition
Trent Affair: Avoided war with Britain over Confederate diplomats
Alabama Claims: Protested British-built Confederate warships
Emancipation impact: Made war about slavery, not just Union

👥 Home Front Changes

Social Transformation:

Women's roles: Entered workforce, served as nurses
African American military service: 200,000 served in Union forces
Contraband camps: Escaped enslaved people in Union territory
Industrial expansion: War production boosted Northern economy
Agricultural changes: Mechanization replaced farm labor

📜 Constitutional Amendments

13th Amendment (1865):

Abolished slavery: Ended slavery throughout United States
Congressional passage: Passed January 1865 with Republican majority
State ratification: Required 3/4 of states, including some former Confederate
Constitutional permanence: Made emancipation irreversible

Click to understand governmental transformation! 🏛️

5.10 Reconstruction

Learning Objective:

Explain the effects of government policy during Reconstruction on society from 1865 to 1877.

🔄 Reconstruction Plans

Competing Reconstruction Approaches:

Plan	Leader	Requirements for Readmission	Treatment of Former Confederates
10% Plan	Lincoln	10% of voters take loyalty oath	Generous amnesty
Wade-Davis Bill	Radical Republicans	50% take "ironclad oath"	Harsh punishment
Presidential	Johnson	Repudiate secession, abolish slavery	Pardons for most Confederates
Congressional	Republicans	New constitutions, 14th Amendment	Disfranchise Confederate leaders

💥 Johnson vs. Congress

April 14, 1865 - Lincoln's Assassination: John Wilkes Booth killed Lincoln, Andrew Johnson became president

Johnson's Presidential Reconstruction:

Lenient approach: Quick restoration of Southern states
Black Codes: States passed laws restricting freed people's rights
Confederate leaders returned: Former rebels regained political power
Limited change: Minimal protection for African Americans

Congressional Opposition:

Radical Republicans: Demanded harsh treatment of South
Civil Rights Act (1866): Granted citizenship to African Americans
Johnson's vetoes: Opposed Republican legislation
1866 elections: Republicans gained veto-proof majorities

🏛️ Congressional Reconstruction

Reconstruction Acts (1867):

Military districts: South divided into five military zones
New requirements: States must write new constitutions
Universal male suffrage: Black men gained right to vote
14th Amendment: States must ratify amendment

⚖️ Constitutional Amendments

14th Amendment (1868):

Citizenship clause: All persons born in U.S. are citizens
Equal protection: States cannot deny equal protection of laws
Due process: States cannot deny life, liberty, property without due process
Reduced representation: States lose representation for denying voting rights

15th Amendment (1870):

Voting rights: Cannot deny vote based on race, color, or previous servitude
Federal enforcement: Congress given power to enforce amendment
Limitations: Didn't prevent literacy tests, poll taxes, other restrictions

👑 Johnson's Impeachment

Tenure of Office Act (1867): Required Senate approval to remove cabinet members

Impeachment Crisis:

Johnson fired Stanton: Removed Secretary of War without Senate approval
House impeachment: Voted to impeach for "high crimes and misdemeanors"
Senate trial: Johnson acquitted by one vote
Political motivation: Republicans wanted to remove obstacle to Reconstruction

🗳️ African American Political Participation

Black Political Power:

Voting registration: 700,000 African Americans registered in South
Office holding: 2,000 African Americans held public office
U.S. Congress: 16 African Americans served in Congress during Reconstruction
State governments: African Americans served in state legislatures
Republican alliance: Formed coalition with white Republicans

🏫 Freedmen's Bureau

Federal Assistance Agency:

Education: Established schools for freed people
Labor contracts: Negotiated fair wages and working conditions
Food and medical aid: Provided basic necessities
Legal protection: Defended African American rights
Land distribution: Limited success in providing land to freed people

📚 Education and Social Changes

Educational Revolution:

Public schools: First comprehensive public education in South
African American teachers: Northern missionaries and freed people taught
Higher education: Founded historically black colleges and universities
Literacy rates: Dramatic increase in African American literacy

🌾 Economic Reconstruction

Labor System Changes:

Sharecropping: Tenant farming system replaced plantation slavery
Crop lien system: Farmers mortgaged crops for supplies
Debt peonage: Cycle of debt trapped many farmers
Limited land ownership: Few African Americans acquired land

Click to understand Reconstruction's revolutionary potential! 🔄

5.11 Failure of Reconstruction

Learning Objective:

Explain how and why Reconstruction ended in 1877.

👻 Rise of White Resistance

Ku Klux Klan and White Supremacy:

KKK formation (1866): Secret society led by Nathan Bedford Forrest
Terrorist tactics: Violence and intimidation against African Americans
Political goals: Prevent African American voting
Social control: Maintain white supremacy and racial hierarchy
Economic pressure: Prevent African American economic advancement

Force Acts (1870-1871): Federal laws to combat KKK violence and protect voting rights

📉 Northern War Fatigue

Declining Northern Support:

Economic priorities: Focus shifted to industrialization and economic growth
Scandal fatigue: Grant administration corruption undermined Republican support
Racial attitudes: Many Northerners accepted white supremacist arguments
States' rights: Growing belief that South should handle its own affairs
Political costs: Reconstruction became electoral liability for Republicans

💰 Economic Challenges

Panic of 1873:

Economic depression: Worst economic crisis since 1837
Political consequences: Republicans lost control of House in 1874
Reduced federal spending: Less money for Reconstruction programs
Focus shift: Economic issues overshadowed civil rights

🏛️ Supreme Court Decisions

Narrow Constitutional Interpretation:

Slaughterhouse Cases (1873): Limited 14th Amendment to federal citizenship only
United States v. Cruikshank (1876): Federal government couldn't prosecute private violence
United States v. Reese (1876): Restricted federal enforcement of 15th Amendment
Civil Rights Cases (1883): 14th Amendment didn't apply to private discrimination

🗳️ Election of 1876

Disputed Election:

Candidates: Republican Rutherford B. Hayes vs. Democrat Samuel Tilden
Popular vote: Tilden won 250,000 more votes than Hayes
Electoral dispute: 20 electoral votes contested in three Southern states
Electoral Commission: 15-member commission decided election 8-7 for Hayes

🤝 Compromise of 1877

The "Corrupt Bargain":

Hayes presidency: Republicans got the White House
End Reconstruction: Federal troops withdrawn from South
Economic concessions: Federal funding for Southern railroads and internal improvements
Cabinet position: Southern Democrat in Hayes's cabinet
Home rule: South regained control of own affairs

📉 Consequences of Reconstruction's End

Return of White Supremacy:

Disenfranchisement: African Americans lost voting rights through legal means
Jim Crow laws: Legal segregation replaced slavery
Economic exploitation: Sharecropping and debt peonage trapped African Americans
Violence: Lynching and terrorism went unpunished
Lost opportunities: Promising experiment in racial democracy ended

📊 Methods of Disenfranchisement

Legal Restrictions on Voting:

Method	Description	Impact
Poll Tax	Required payment to vote	Excluded poor African Americans and whites
Literacy Test	Required reading and writing ability	Discriminatory administration against African Americans
Grandfather Clause	Exempted those whose grandfathers voted before 1867	Allowed illiterate whites to vote while excluding African Americans
White Primary	Excluded African Americans from Democratic primary	Effective disenfranchisement in one-party South

🏛️ Long-term Impact

Reconstruction's Legacy:

Constitutional amendments: 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments remained law
Legal precedent: Federal power to protect civil rights established
Unfinished revolution: Goals wouldn't be achieved until 1960s Civil Rights Movement
Historical memory: Reconstruction remembered as "tragic era" until late 20th century

❓ Why Reconstruction Failed

Multiple Causes of Failure:

Insufficient commitment: North lacked sustained will to enforce change
Racism: Widespread belief in white supremacy, even among supporters
Economic interests: Business priorities trumped civil rights
States' rights tradition: Federal intervention seen as temporary
Political compromise: Republican Party traded civil rights for political power
Southern resistance: Determined white opposition to racial equality

Click to understand Reconstruction's tragic end! 💔

5.12 Comparison in Period 5, 1844-1877

Learning Objective:

Compare the relative significance of the major events of the first half of the 19th century in developing American identity.

🔄 Before and After Comparison

America in 1844 vs. 1877:

Aspect	1844	1877
Territory	28 states, ended at Mississippi River	38 states, continental nation
Slavery	4 million enslaved people	Slavery abolished by 13th Amendment
Federal Power	Limited government, states' rights strong	Expanded federal authority, national supremacy
Economy	Regional specialization, limited industry	National market, industrial growth
Constitution	12 amendments since ratification	15 amendments, major expansion of rights
Transportation	Canals, early railroads	Transcontinental railroad, national network

⚖️ Continuities and Changes

What Changed:

Slavery ended: Constitutional abolition of human bondage
Federal power expanded: National government gained authority over states
Citizenship redefined: 14th Amendment created national citizenship
Continental nation: Territory extended from Atlantic to Pacific
Industrial economy: Manufacturing replaced agriculture as dominant sector
Party system: Republicans replaced Whigs as major party

What Remained the Same:

White supremacy: Racial inequality persisted after Reconstruction
Economic inequality: Class divisions continued and expanded
Gender restrictions: Women still excluded from political participation
Regional differences: North-South cultural and economic divisions
Democratic ideals: Commitment to popular government and individual rights

🏛️ Constitutional Development

Major Constitutional Changes:

13th Amendment: Abolished slavery and involuntary servitude
14th Amendment: Defined citizenship, equal protection, due process
15th Amendment: Protected voting rights regardless of race
Presidential power: Lincoln's wartime precedents expanded executive authority
Federal supremacy: National government authority over states established

🌍 International Comparisons

Global Context:

Abolition movement: Most Western nations ended slavery by 1880
Nationalism: German and Italian unification paralleled American experience
Democracy: American Civil War tested democratic government
Industrial revolution: America joined ranks of industrial powers
Civil wars: Many nations experienced internal conflicts over modernization

📊 Economic Transformation

Economic Changes 1844-1877:

Sector	1844	1877
Agriculture	Dominant economic sector	Still important but declining relative to industry
Manufacturing	Limited to Northeast	National industrial economy
Transportation	Regional networks	Transcontinental railroad system
Labor	Agricultural, artisan, enslaved	Industrial wage labor, free labor
Finance	Local banks, limited capital	National banking system, big business

👥 Social Changes

Demographic Shifts:

Population growth: From 20 million (1844) to 46 million (1877)
Urbanization: Cities grew rapidly with industrialization
Immigration: Continued influx from Europe
Westward migration: Settlement of Great Plains and Far West
African American freedom: 4 million people gained legal freedom

🎯 Long-term Significance

Period 5's Historical Impact:

Preserved Union: United States remained one nation
Ended slavery: Resolved fundamental contradiction in American freedom
Expanded democracy: Constitutional protection for civil rights
Created modern America: Industrial, continental, powerful nation
Set precedents: Federal power, civil rights enforcement, presidential authority
Unfinished business: Racial equality delayed until Civil Rights Movement

❓ Historical Questions

Key Questions for Analysis:

Was the Civil War inevitable by 1844?
Could Reconstruction have succeeded with different policies?
How did territorial expansion contribute to sectional crisis?
What was the relative importance of moral vs. economic factors in ending slavery?
How did the Civil War change the nature of American federalism?
Why did racial equality fail during Reconstruction?

Click to understand Period 5's transformative impact! 🔄

📖 Unit 5 Summary & AP Exam Strategies

🎯 Key Themes to Master

Sectional Crisis: How territorial expansion intensified slavery debate
Political Breakdown: Failure of compromise and party system collapse
Civil War Causes: Multiple factors leading to armed conflict
Military Conflict: Strategies, battles, and factors in Union victory
War's Impact: Transformation of government and society
Reconstruction: Attempts to rebuild South and protect civil rights
Constitutional Changes: 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments
Reconstruction's Failure: Return of white supremacy

💡 AP Exam Success Strategies

For Multiple Choice Questions:

Understand cause-and-effect relationships (territorial expansion → sectional crisis → war)
Know specific events and their significance (Kansas-Nebraska Act, Dred Scott, etc.)
Analyze maps showing territorial expansion and sectional divisions
Compare different Reconstruction plans and their outcomes

For Short Answer Questions:

Practice explaining why compromise failed after 1850
Analyze factors contributing to Union victory in Civil War
Compare Presidential and Congressional Reconstruction
Explain why Reconstruction ended and its consequences

For Long Essay Questions:

Evaluate extent to which Civil War was "Second American Revolution"
Analyze continuities and changes from antebellum period through Reconstruction
Assess success and failure of Reconstruction policies
Compare Civil War to other American conflicts or revolutions

📚 Essential Vocabulary

Must-Know Terms:

Manifest Destiny, Mexican Cession, Compromise of 1850, Fugitive Slave Act, Kansas-Nebraska Act, popular sovereignty, Bleeding Kansas, Dred Scott v. Sandford, Lincoln-Douglas debates, John Brown's raid, Election of 1860, secession, Fort Sumter, Emancipation Proclamation, total war, Gettysburg, Antietam, Vicksburg, 13th/14th/15th Amendments, Reconstruction, Freedmen's Bureau, Black Codes, Jim Crow laws, sharecropping, Compromise of 1877

📅 Critical Dates

Essential Chronology: 1845 (Texas annexation), 1846-1848 (Mexican-American War), 1850 (Compromise of 1850), 1854 (Kansas-Nebraska Act), 1857 (Dred Scott decision), 1860 (Lincoln elected), 1861 (Fort Sumter, war begins), 1863 (Emancipation Proclamation, Gettysburg, Vicksburg), 1865 (Lee surrenders, Lincoln assassinated, 13th Amendment), 1866-1867 (Congressional Reconstruction), 1868 (14th Amendment, Johnson impeachment), 1870 (15th Amendment), 1877 (Reconstruction ends)