AP Score Calculator

AP US History Score Calculator 2025 | Instant APUSH Composite & Percentile Estimator

5 months ago
Last Update on October 11, 2025
6 mins
205 Views
Convert your AP U.S. History raw multiple-choice and DBQ/FRQ points into an accurate 1-to-5 score with our free APUSH Score Calculator. Updated for the 2025 rubric—fast, mobile-friendly, perfect for study planning and performance tracking.

AP® US History Score Calculator

Adjust the sliders below to calculate your potential AP® score based on your performance.

Section I, Part A – Multiple Choice 0/55
Section I, Part B – Short-Answer Questions
SAQ 1 0/3
SAQ 2 0/3
SAQ 3 0/3
Section II – Free Response (Essays)
Document-Based Question 0/7
Long-Essay Question 0/6
Your Estimated AP® Score
1
Keep studying those historical periods!
MCQ Score (scaled to 52)
0
FRQ Score (scaled to 78)
0
Total Composite Score
0/130
0306090120130
Score Thresholds (approximate):
1 (0-43) • 2 (44-62) • 3 (63-79) • 4 (80-96) • 5 (97+)
📚 Official APUSH Resources

AP US Government & Politics – 2025 Complete Cheatsheet

🏛 Unit 1: Foundations of American Democracy ▼
  • Enlightenment Ideas & Foundations
    • Natural Rights Philosophy - John Locke's theory that individuals possess inherent rights to life, liberty, and property that cannot be surrendered to government
    • Social Contract Theory - People voluntarily consent to be governed in exchange for protection of their rights; government legitimacy derives from consent of the governed
    • Popular Sovereignty - The principle that government's authority comes from the people, who are the ultimate source of political power
    • Limited Government - Restrictions on governmental power to prevent tyranny and protect individual freedoms
  • The Declaration of Independence (1776)
    • Drafted primarily by Thomas Jefferson, influenced by Enlightenment philosophers
    • Established foundational principles: "all men are created equal," unalienable rights to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness"
    • Listed grievances against King George III to justify separation from Britain
    • Proclaimed the right of revolution when government violates natural rights
    • Key phrase: "Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed"
  • The Articles of Confederation (1781-1789)
    • America's first constitution creating a "league of friendship" among states
    • Weaknesses: No executive branch, no national judiciary, no power to tax, no power to regulate interstate commerce, required unanimous consent to amend, each state had one vote regardless of population
    • Shay's Rebellion (1786-1787) - Armed uprising of Massachusetts farmers exposed the government's inability to maintain order, catalyzed calls for constitutional convention
    • Demonstrated that too weak a central government leads to instability and inability to address national problems
  • Models of Representative Democracy
    • Participatory Democracy - Emphasizes broad citizen participation in politics and civil society; direct involvement in decision-making processes; strong civil engagement and grassroots movements
    • Pluralist Democracy - Competition among diverse interest groups shapes public policy; no single group dominates; government acts as mediator among competing factions; examples include lobbying groups, PACs, advocacy organizations
    • Elite Democracy - Political power concentrated among educated, wealthy elites who are better equipped to make policy decisions; limited mass participation; expertise-driven governance
  • Constitutional Principles
    • Federalism - Division of power between national and state governments; dual sovereignty; each level has distinct powers (enumerated vs. reserved)
    • Separation of Powers - Division of government into three branches (Legislative, Executive, Judicial) with distinct functions to prevent concentration of power
    • Checks and Balances - Each branch has mechanisms to limit the powers of the other two branches
      • Legislative checks: Override vetoes (2/3 vote), Senate confirms appointments, impeachment power, controls budget
      • Executive checks: Veto legislation, nominates judges, executive orders, pardon power
      • Judicial checks: Judicial review, declares laws/actions unconstitutional, lifetime appointments ensure independence
    • Federalist No. 51 by Madison - "Ambition must be made to counteract ambition" - explains how separation of powers and checks and balances protect against tyranny
  • The Constitutional Convention (1787)
    • The Virginia Plan - Proposed bicameral legislature with representation based on population; favored large states
    • The New Jersey Plan - Proposed unicameral legislature with equal state representation; favored small states
    • The Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise) - Created bicameral legislature: House based on population, Senate with equal representation (2 per state); resolved large state vs. small state debate
    • Three-Fifths Compromise - Counted enslaved persons as 3/5 of a person for representation and taxation purposes; increased Southern power in House and Electoral College
    • Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise - Congress could not ban slave trade until 1808; gave federal government power to regulate interstate commerce
  • The Electoral College
    • Compromise between popular vote and congressional selection of president
    • Each state gets electors equal to its total congressional delegation (House + Senate)
    • Total of 538 electors; 270 needed to win
    • Most states use winner-take-all system (Maine and Nebraska use district method)
    • If no candidate reaches 270, House elects president (each state delegation gets one vote)
    • Criticisms: Winner of popular vote can lose election; gives disproportionate power to swing states; discourages turnout in non-competitive states
  • Ratification Debate
    • Federalists - Supported ratification (Hamilton, Madison, Jay); argued for strong central government; wrote Federalist Papers to promote Constitution
    • Anti-Federalists - Opposed ratification (Patrick Henry, George Mason); feared tyranny of strong central government; demanded Bill of Rights as condition for ratification; wrote Brutus essays
    • Federalist No. 10 - Madison argues that a large republic better controls factions than small democracy; diversity of interests prevents tyranny of majority
    • Constitution ratified in 1788; Bill of Rights added in 1791 as compromise to secure ratification
⚖️ Unit 2: Interactions Among Branches of Government ▼
  • The Legislative Branch - Congress
    • Structure: Bicameral legislature consisting of House of Representatives (435 members, 2-year terms) and Senate (100 members, 6-year terms with staggered elections)
    • House of Representatives
      • Representation based on state population (reapportioned every 10 years after census)
      • Must be 25 years old, citizen for 7 years, resident of state
      • Speaker of the House - Most powerful position; controls floor agenda, assigns bills to committees
      • Exclusive powers: Initiate revenue bills, impeach federal officials, elect president if Electoral College fails
    • Senate
      • Equal representation (2 senators per state regardless of population)
      • Must be 30 years old, citizen for 9 years, resident of state
      • President Pro Tempore - Presides in Vice President's absence (largely ceremonial)
      • Exclusive powers: Confirm presidential appointments (simple majority), ratify treaties (2/3 vote), try impeachment cases, elect VP if Electoral College fails
  • Congressional Powers
    • Enumerated Powers (Article I, Section 8): Tax and spend, borrow money, regulate interstate and foreign commerce, coin money, establish post offices, declare war, raise armies, establish federal courts below Supreme Court
    • Implied Powers: "Necessary and proper clause" (elastic clause) - Congress can make laws needed to execute enumerated powers; established in McCulloch v. Maryland
    • Power of the Purse - Congress controls federal spending through budget and appropriations; most significant check on executive branch
    • Oversight Function - Monitor executive branch implementation of laws through hearings, investigations, GAO audits
  • Legislative Process
    • Committee System - Standing committees (permanent, subject-specific), select committees (temporary, specific purpose), joint committees (both chambers), conference committees (reconcile House/Senate versions)
    • Bill becomes law: Introduction → Committee review → Floor debate → Vote → Other chamber repeats process → Conference committee if needed → Presidential action (sign, veto, or pocket veto)
    • Simple Majority - 50% + 1 vote; used for most legislation, presidential appointments
    • Supermajority Requirements:
      • 2/3 vote to override presidential veto
      • 2/3 vote to ratify treaties (Senate only)
      • 2/3 vote to propose constitutional amendments
      • 3/5 vote for cloture to end filibuster (Senate only)
  • Senate Unique Procedures
    • Filibuster - Tactic to delay or block legislation through unlimited debate; senator can speak indefinitely to prevent vote
    • Cloture - Requires 60 votes (3/5 of Senate) to end filibuster and force vote on legislation
    • Hold - Senator can anonymously block floor consideration of bill or nomination
    • Unanimous Consent - Agreements to expedite Senate business; any senator can object
  • Congressional Influences and Practices
    • Pork-Barrel Spending - Appropriations securing federal funds for local projects to benefit constituents and boost reelection chances
    • Logrolling - Trading votes between legislators; "I'll vote for your bill if you vote for mine"
    • Earmarks - Provisions inserted into bills to direct funds to specific projects in member's district (banned 2011-2021, now with disclosure requirements)
    • Trustee Model - Representatives vote based on their own judgment of what's best
    • Delegate Model - Representatives vote according to constituent preferences
    • Politico Model - Representatives balance trustee and delegate approaches situationally
  • The Executive Branch - President
    • Formal Requirements: Natural-born citizen, 35 years old, 14-year resident; 4-year term, limited to 2 terms (22nd Amendment)
    • Enumerated Powers (Article II):
      • Commander-in-Chief - Control of military; War Powers Resolution (1973) requires congressional notification within 48 hours, authorization within 60 days
      • Chief Diplomat - Negotiate treaties (require 2/3 Senate approval), make executive agreements (no Senate approval needed), receive foreign ambassadors
      • Chief Executive - "Take care that laws be faithfully executed," appoint cabinet members and agency heads
      • Chief Legislator - Veto legislation, recommend legislation via State of the Union, call special congressional sessions
      • Appointment Power - Nominate federal judges, cabinet members, ambassadors (Senate confirmation required)
      • Pardon Power - Grant reprieves and pardons for federal crimes (except impeachment)
  • Presidential Powers Expansion
    • Executive Orders - Directives with force of law; manage federal government operations; subject to judicial review; can be overturned by Congress or future presidents
    • Executive Agreements - International agreements not requiring Senate approval; same legal force as treaties domestically
    • Signing Statements - Written declarations by president when signing bills; express interpretation or concerns about constitutionality
    • Executive Privilege - Right to withhold information from Congress/courts; not absolute; limited by United States v. Nixon
    • Bully Pulpit - President's ability to use office visibility to promote agenda and shape public opinion
  • Presidential Roles
    • Chief of State - Ceremonial head representing nation; symbolic leadership
    • Chief Executive - Runs federal bureaucracy; appoints officials; issues executive orders
    • Chief Diplomat - Conducts foreign policy; negotiates treaties; recognizes nations
    • Commander-in-Chief - Controls armed forces; makes military decisions
    • Chief Legislator - Shapes legislative agenda; signs/vetoes bills; delivers State of Union
    • Chief of Party - Leads political party; campaigns for party members; shapes party platform
    • Chief Citizen - Represents all Americans; moral leadership; responds to national crises
  • The Judicial Branch - Federal Courts
    • Structure: Supreme Court (9 justices), Courts of Appeals (13 circuits), District Courts (94 districts), specialized courts
    • Supreme Court (SCOTUS)
      • Composition: Chief Justice + 8 Associate Justices; lifetime appointments (good behavior)
      • Jurisdiction: Original (cases involving states, diplomats) and Appellate (reviews lower court decisions)
      • Certiorari - "Rule of Four": 4 justices must agree to hear case; SCOTUS accepts <100 of ~7,000 annual petitions
    • Judicial Review - Power to declare laws and executive actions unconstitutional; established in Marbury v. Madison (1803); most significant check on other branches
    • Judicial Philosophies
      • Judicial Activism - Courts should play active role in shaping social policy; broader interpretation of Constitution
      • Judicial Restraint - Courts should defer to legislative/executive branches; strict interpretation; avoid policy-making
      • Originalism - Interpret Constitution based on original intent of framers
      • Living Constitution - Constitution adapts to changing times and modern circumstances
  • Judicial Independence and Accountability
    • Protections: Lifetime tenure (good behavior), salary cannot be decreased, appointment rather than election
    • Constraints: Congress controls budget, size of courts, jurisdiction; Senate confirms appointments; constitutional amendments can override decisions; enforcement depends on executive branch
    • Impeachment: Judges can be impeached for "high crimes and misdemeanors" but rarely happens
  • The Bureaucracy
    • Structure: 15 Cabinet departments (State, Treasury, Defense, etc.), independent executive agencies (EPA, NASA), independent regulatory commissions (FCC, SEC, FTC)
    • Functions: Implementation (execute laws), regulation (create/enforce rules), administration (manage programs)
    • Rulemaking - Federal agencies create specific regulations to implement laws; have force of law; subject to notice-and-comment period
    • Iron Triangles - Close relationships between congressional committees, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups; coordinate policy in specific areas
    • Issue Networks - Broader, looser coalitions of stakeholders influencing policy; more fluid than iron triangles
    • Congressional Oversight: Hearings, investigations, power of purse, Senate confirmations, GAO audits
👥 Unit 3: Civil Liberties and Civil Rights ▼
  • Civil Liberties vs. Civil Rights
    • Civil Liberties - Constitutional protections against government infringement; freedoms government cannot take away (speech, religion, privacy)
    • Civil Rights - Constitutional guarantees of equal treatment under law; protections from discrimination; government obligation to ensure equality
  • The Bill of Rights (First 10 Amendments)
    • Added in 1791 as compromise to secure ratification; originally applied only to federal government
    • Selective Incorporation - Process of applying Bill of Rights to states through 14th Amendment Due Process Clause; occurred case-by-case throughout 20th century
    • Most Bill of Rights protections now apply to states except: 3rd Amendment (quartering soldiers), 5th Amendment grand jury requirement, 7th Amendment civil jury trials, 8th Amendment excessive fines
  • First Amendment - Freedom of Religion
    • Establishment Clause - "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion"
      • Lemon Test (Lemon v. Kurtzman, 1971): Government action must have secular purpose, neither advance nor inhibit religion, not create excessive entanglement
      • Prohibits school-sponsored prayer (Engel v. Vitale, 1962)
      • Allows some religious displays on public property if secular purpose
    • Free Exercise Clause - "or prohibiting the free exercise thereof"
      • Government cannot punish religious beliefs
      • Religious practices can be limited if compelling state interest (Employment Division v. Smith, 1990)
      • Religious Freedom Restoration Act (1993) provides additional protections
      • Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972) - Amish exempted from compulsory education laws
  • First Amendment - Freedom of Speech
    • Protected Speech: Political speech (most protected), symbolic speech (flag burning, armbands), commercial speech (advertising - less protection)
    • Unprotected Speech: Obscenity (Miller test), fighting words, defamation (libel/slander), incitement to imminent lawless action, true threats
    • Key Cases:
      • Schenck v. United States (1919) - "Clear and present danger" test; speech can be limited during wartime
      • Tinker v. Des Moines (1969) - Students don't "shed rights at schoolhouse gate"; symbolic speech protected unless substantial disruption
      • Texas v. Johnson (1989) - Flag burning protected as symbolic speech
      • Citizens United v. FEC (2010) - Corporate political spending protected as free speech
    • Prior Restraint - Government censorship before publication; presumed unconstitutional (New York Times v. United States, 1971 - Pentagon Papers)
  • First Amendment - Freedom of Press and Assembly
    • Freedom of Press: Shield laws (protect journalist sources), no prior restraint, press can publish leaked information
    • Libel/Slander: Public figures must prove "actual malice" (knowingly false or reckless disregard for truth) - New York Times v. Sullivan (1964)
    • Freedom of Assembly: Right to peaceful protest; government can impose time/place/manner restrictions if content-neutral
    • Right to Petition: Citizens can appeal to government for redress of grievances
  • Second Amendment - Right to Bear Arms
    • "A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed"
    • District of Columbia v. Heller (2008) - Individual right to possess firearms for self-defense in federal enclaves
    • McDonald v. Chicago (2010) - Incorporated 2nd Amendment to states via 14th Amendment
    • Government can impose reasonable regulations: prohibit felons/mentally ill from possessing guns, ban certain weapons, regulate commercial sales
  • Rights of the Accused (4th, 5th, 6th, 8th Amendments)
    • 4th Amendment - Protection against unreasonable searches and seizures; requires warrants based on probable cause
      • Exclusionary Rule - Evidence obtained illegally cannot be used in court (Mapp v. Ohio, 1961)
      • Exceptions: consent searches, plain view, stop and frisk, automobile exception, exigent circumstances
    • 5th Amendment - Right against self-incrimination, double jeopardy, due process; requires grand jury indictment for serious federal crimes; takings clause (eminent domain with just compensation)
    • 6th Amendment - Right to speedy and public trial, impartial jury, confront witnesses, compel witnesses, counsel
      • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) - Right to attorney in felony cases for indigent defendants
    • 8th Amendment - No excessive bail or fines, no cruel and unusual punishment
      • Death penalty constitutional but subject to restrictions
      • Proportionality requirement for sentences
    • Miranda Rights (Miranda v. Arizona, 1966) - Police must inform suspects of rights before custodial interrogation: right to remain silent, statements can be used against you, right to attorney, attorney provided if cannot afford
  • Right to Privacy
    • Not explicitly in Constitution; derived from "penumbras" of other amendments
    • Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) - Established privacy right; struck down ban on contraceptives for married couples
    • Roe v. Wade (1973) - Extended privacy right to abortion; trimester framework; overturned by Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization (2022)
    • Lawrence v. Texas (2003) - Privacy protects consensual sexual conduct; struck down sodomy laws
  • Civil Rights - 14th Amendment
    • Equal Protection Clause - "No state shall deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws"
      • Strict Scrutiny - Applied to classifications based on race, national origin, religion; government must show compelling interest and narrowly tailored means
      • Intermediate Scrutiny - Applied to gender classifications; government must show important interest and substantially related means
      • Rational Basis - Applied to most other classifications; government must show legitimate interest and rational relationship
    • Due Process Clause - Prohibits states from depriving persons of life, liberty, or property without due process; basis for selective incorporation
  • Racial Discrimination and Civil Rights Movement
    • Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) - "Separate but equal" doctrine upheld racial segregation
    • Brown v. Board of Education (1954) - Overturned Plessy; declared school segregation unconstitutional; "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal"
    • Civil Rights Act of 1964 - Prohibited discrimination in public accommodations, employment, federally funded programs; Title VII created EEOC
    • Voting Rights Act of 1965 - Banned literacy tests, provided federal oversight of elections in jurisdictions with history of discrimination; Section 5 preclearance struck down in Shelby County v. Holder (2013)
    • Affirmative Action - Policies to increase opportunities for historically disadvantaged groups
      • Regents of University of California v. Bakke (1978) - Racial quotas unconstitutional but race can be one factor
      • Grutter v. Bollinger (2003) - Diversity is compelling interest; narrowly tailored race-conscious admissions permitted
      • Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard/UNC (2023) - Struck down race-conscious admissions policies
  • Gender Discrimination
    • 19th Amendment (1920) - Women's suffrage
    • Title VII of Civil Rights Act (1964) - Prohibited employment discrimination based on sex
    • Title IX of Education Amendments (1972) - Prohibited sex discrimination in education
    • Reed v. Reed (1971) - First case striking down law based on gender discrimination
    • Craig v. Boren (1976) - Established intermediate scrutiny for gender classifications
    • United States v. Virginia (1996) - VMI must admit women; state cannot exclude based solely on gender
  • Other Protected Groups
    • Age Discrimination: Age Discrimination in Employment Act (1967) - protects workers 40+
    • Disability Rights: Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) - requires reasonable accommodations, prohibits discrimination
    • LGBTQ+ Rights:
      • Romer v. Evans (1996) - Struck down anti-LGBTQ discrimination law
      • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) - Same-sex marriage constitutional right
      • Bostock v. Clayton County (2020) - Title VII prohibits employment discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity
🗽 Unit 4: American Political Ideologies and Beliefs ▼
  • Political Socialization
    • Process by which individuals develop political values, beliefs, attitudes, and ideologies
    • Agents of Socialization:
      • Family - Most influential; transmits party identification, values, civic engagement levels
      • Schools - Civic education, patriotic rituals, exposure to diverse viewpoints
      • Peers - Reinforcement and challenge of beliefs; social pressure
      • Media - Information source, agenda-setting, framing of issues
      • Religious Institutions - Moral values, political engagement, issue positions
      • Life Events - Wars, economic crises, social movements shape political views
    • Generational Effects - Shared experiences of age cohorts create distinct political orientations (Greatest Generation, Baby Boomers, Gen X, Millennials, Gen Z)
  • Core American Values
    • Liberty - Freedom from government interference; individual autonomy
    • Equality - Equal opportunity, political equality, debate over equality of outcome
    • Individualism - Self-reliance, personal responsibility, limited government
    • Democracy - Popular sovereignty, majority rule with minority rights
    • Rule of Law - Laws apply equally to all; government bound by law
    • Free Enterprise - Market economy, private property, economic competition
  • Public Opinion
    • Collective attitudes of citizens on government, policies, and politics
    • Measuring Public Opinion - Polling:
      • Scientific Polling - Random sampling, representative sample, margin of error (typically ±3-4% for national polls)
      • Sampling Error - Difference between sample results and true population values; decreases with larger sample size
      • Question Wording - Phrasing affects responses; leading questions bias results
      • Question Order - Earlier questions can influence later responses
      • Sample Selection - Likely voters vs. registered voters vs. all adults; affects results
    • Types of Polls:
      • Benchmark Polls - Initial poll in campaign to assess candidate's standing
      • Tracking Polls - Continuous polling over time to detect trends
      • Exit Polls - Surveys of voters leaving polling places; predict winners, analyze voter behavior
      • Push Polls - Not true polls; attempt to influence voters through loaded questions
    • Challenges: Nonresponse bias, social desirability bias, difficulty reaching representative samples (cell phones, declining response rates)
  • Political Ideologies
    • Liberalism (Left/Progressive)
      • Economic: Support government intervention/regulation of economy, progressive taxation, social welfare programs, labor protections, minimum wage increases
      • Social: Expand civil liberties and rights, support LGBTQ+ rights, abortion rights, criminal justice reform, environmental protection, gun control
      • Role of Government: Active government role in addressing social/economic problems; safety net programs
      • Emphasize equality, social justice, collective responsibility
    • Conservatism (Right)
      • Economic: Free market capitalism, limited regulation, lower taxes, reduced government spending, fiscal responsibility, oppose large welfare programs
      • Social: Traditional values, strong national defense, tough on crime, restrict abortion, Second Amendment rights, school choice
      • Role of Government: Limited government except national security; states' rights; individual responsibility over government programs
      • Emphasize liberty, traditional values, individual responsibility
    • Libertarianism
      • Maximum individual freedom in both economic and social realms
      • Minimal government intervention beyond protection of property rights and personal safety
      • Oppose both economic regulations and social regulations
      • Support free markets, civil liberties, non-interventionist foreign policy
    • Moderates/Centrists
      • Hold mixture of liberal and conservative views
      • May be liberal on some issues, conservative on others
      • Often pragmatic; support compromise solutions
  • Political Parties
    • Democratic Party
      • Generally aligned with liberal ideology
      • Coalition includes urban voters, minorities, young voters, educated professionals, unions
      • Support: social welfare programs, environmental regulation, gun control, abortion rights, LGBTQ+ rights, progressive taxation
    • Republican Party
      • Generally aligned with conservative ideology
      • Coalition includes rural voters, white evangelicals, business owners, older voters, military veterans
      • Support: limited government, free markets, strong military, traditional values, gun rights, school choice, restrict abortion
    • Third Parties: Libertarian, Green, others; rarely win major offices but can influence debate and elections (spoiler effect)
  • Economic Policy Views
    • Fiscal Policy - Government taxing and spending
      • Keynesian Economics (Liberal view) - Government should increase spending during recessions to stimulate economy
      • Supply-Side Economics (Conservative view) - Lower taxes stimulate economic growth by increasing investment and production
    • Monetary Policy - Federal Reserve control of money supply and interest rates; generally less partisan than fiscal policy
    • Trade Policy - Free trade vs. protectionism; traditional divisions less clear in recent years
    • Entitlements - Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid; debate over sustainability and reform
  • Social Policy Views
    • Education: School choice, charter schools, standardized testing, student loans, affirmative action
    • Healthcare: Universal healthcare vs. market-based; role of government; Affordable Care Act debates
    • Criminal Justice: Tough on crime vs. reform; death penalty; mandatory minimum sentences; police reform
    • Immigration: Border security, pathway to citizenship, DACA, refugee policy
    • Environment: Climate change policy, regulations vs. market solutions, energy policy
  • Foreign Policy Views
    • Interventionism - Active U.S. role in world affairs; military intervention to promote democracy/human rights
    • Isolationism - Limited involvement in foreign conflicts; focus on domestic priorities
    • Multilateralism - Work through international organizations and alliances (UN, NATO)
    • Unilateralism - Act independently based on national interest
🗳 Unit 5: Political Participation ▼
  • Forms of Political Participation
    • Voting - Most common form; turnout varies by election type (presidential > midterm > local)
    • Campaign Activities - Volunteering, donating money, attending rallies, displaying signs/stickers
    • Contacting Officials - Emails, calls, letters to representatives; constituent services
    • Protest and Demonstrations - Marches, rallies, civil disobedience to express grievances
    • Joining Organizations - Interest groups, political parties, civic associations
    • Social Media Activism - Online campaigns, petitions, spreading information
  • Voting Behavior Models
    • Rational Choice Voting - Voters choose candidates who best serve their individual interests; cost-benefit analysis
    • Retrospective Voting - Voters evaluate incumbent's past performance; reward or punish based on results
    • Prospective Voting - Voters choose based on candidates' promises and proposed policies for the future
    • Party-Line Voting - Voting for all candidates from same party; based on party loyalty/identification
  • Factors Influencing Voter Turnout
    • Demographic Factors:
      • Age - Older voters turnout at higher rates than younger voters
      • Education - More educated citizens vote at higher rates
      • Income - Higher income correlates with higher turnout
      • Race - White voters historically higher turnout; gaps narrowing
    • Legal Requirements:
      • Voter registration requirements (some states easier than others)
      • Voter ID laws (proponents: prevent fraud; opponents: suppress turnout)
      • Early voting and mail-in voting availability
      • Felon disenfranchisement laws (vary by state)
    • Political Factors:
      • Competitiveness of race (closer races increase turnout)
      • Candidate quality and mobilization efforts
      • Media coverage and campaign spending
    • Political Efficacy - Belief that one's participation matters; higher efficacy increases turnout
    • Civic Duty - Sense of obligation to participate; socialized belief in voting responsibility
  • Voter Registration and Expansion of Suffrage
    • 15th Amendment (1870) - Prohibited racial discrimination in voting (though circumvented by literacy tests, poll taxes, grandfather clauses)
    • 19th Amendment (1920) - Women's suffrage
    • Voting Rights Act (1965) - Banned literacy tests, provided federal oversight
    • 24th Amendment (1964) - Prohibited poll taxes in federal elections
    • 26th Amendment (1971) - Lowered voting age to 18
    • Motor Voter Act (1993) - Requires states to offer voter registration at DMV and other agencies
    • Help America Vote Act (2002) - Mandated improvements to voting systems after 2000 election controversies
  • Linkage Institutions
    • Connect citizens to government; channel public preferences into policy
      • Political Parties - Organize government, nominate candidates, mobilize voters, simplify choices
      • Elections - Mechanism for choosing representatives, expressing preferences, holding officials accountable
      • Interest Groups - Represent specific interests, lobby government, educate public
      • Media - Inform public, set agenda, watchdog function, platform for debate
  • Political Parties - Functions and Structure
    • Functions:
      • Nominate and recruit candidates
      • Mobilize and educate voters
      • Facilitate governance and coordinate policy
      • Provide loyal opposition and accountability
      • Simplify choices for voters (brand/label)
    • Structure:
      • National Level - National committees (DNC, RNC), national conventions every 4 years
      • State Level - State party organizations, state conventions
      • Local Level - County/city committees, precinct organizations
    • Party in Government: Elected officials who share party label; organize Congress
    • Party in Electorate: Citizens who identify with party
    • Party Organization: Formal party structure (committees, staff, conventions)
  • Presidential Elections - Nomination Process
    • Invisible Primary - Period before formal primaries; candidates raise money, build organizations, seek endorsements
    • Primaries - State elections to choose delegates for national convention
      • Open Primaries - Any registered voter can participate in either party's primary
      • Closed Primaries - Only registered party members can vote in that party's primary
      • Semi-Closed - Registered party members and independents can participate
    • Caucuses - Party meetings where members discuss and vote for candidates; more time-intensive than primaries; lower turnout
    • Delegates
      • Pledged Delegates - Allocated based on primary/caucus results
      • Superdelegates (Democrats) - Party leaders and elected officials with automatic delegate status; can support any candidate
    • National Convention - Formally nominates presidential and VP candidates; adopts party platform; unifies party
    • Front-Loading - States schedule primaries early to increase influence; criticisms: advantages well-funded candidates, reduces deliberation
  • General Election Campaign
    • Incumbent Advantage
      • Name recognition and established record
      • Fundraising advantages and donor networks
      • Constituency services and credit-claiming
      • Media access and "free" publicity from official duties
      • Experienced campaign staff and organization
    • Campaign Strategies:
      • Target swing states and swing voters
      • Mobilize base while appealing to moderates
      • Negative campaigning and opposition research
      • Debates and media appearances
      • Ground game (field offices, canvassing) vs. air war (TV ads)
  • Campaign Finance
    • Hard Money - Direct contributions to candidates/parties; strictly regulated and limited by FEC
    • Soft Money - Contributions to parties for "party-building" activities; banned for national parties by BCRA (2002)
    • Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA, 1971) - Required disclosure of contributions, created FEC, established contribution limits
    • Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA/McCain-Feingold, 2002) - Banned soft money to national parties, restricted electioneering communications
    • Citizens United v. FEC (2010) - Corporations and unions can spend unlimited amounts on independent political expenditures; cannot donate directly to candidates
    • Super PACs - Independent expenditure-only committees; can raise/spend unlimited amounts; cannot coordinate with candidates
    • Dark Money - Political spending from nonprofit organizations that don't disclose donors (501(c)(4) "social welfare" groups)
    • Public Financing - Optional system for presidential campaigns; candidates receive federal funds if they limit spending; declining participation
  • Interest Groups
    • Types:
      • Economic Groups - Business associations, labor unions, professional associations (AMA, ABA)
      • Public Interest Groups - Advance causes benefiting broader public (ACLU, Sierra Club, Common Cause)
      • Single-Issue Groups - Focus on one specific issue (NRA, NARAL, Right to Life)
      • Ideological Groups - Promote broad ideological perspective (Heritage Foundation, Center for American Progress)
    • Tactics:
      • Lobbying - Direct contact with policymakers; provide information, draft legislation, testify at hearings
      • Electioneering - Campaign contributions through PACs, endorsements, voter mobilization
      • Litigation - File lawsuits, submit amicus briefs to influence judicial decisions
      • Grassroots Mobilization - Mobilize members to contact officials, organize protests
      • Public Education - Media campaigns, issue ads, research reports
    • Pluralist Theory - Competition among interest groups produces responsive government; diffusion of power prevents dominance by any single group
    • Criticisms: Wealthy interests have more influence, collective action problems disadvantage diffuse interests, iron triangles/regulatory capture
  • Media and Politics
    • Functions:
      • Agenda-Setting - Media influences which issues public/government considers important
      • Framing - How media presents issues shapes public understanding and opinion
      • Priming - Media coverage affects standards by which public evaluates politicians
      • Watchdog - Investigative journalism holds officials accountable
      • Forum - Provides platform for political debate and discourse
    • Changes in Media Landscape:
      • Decline of traditional media (newspapers, broadcast TV)
      • Rise of cable news (24-hour cycle, partisan channels)
      • Internet and social media (fragmentation, echo chambers, misinformation)
      • Decline of local news coverage
    • Media Bias: Accusations from both sides; structural bias toward conflict/horse race coverage; ideological bias varies by outlet; confirmation bias in consumption
    • Social Media Impact: Direct candidate-to-voter communication, viral spread of information/misinformation, micro-targeting, filter bubbles, polarization
📜 Required Foundational Documents ▼
  • DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE (1776)
    • Author: Thomas Jefferson (with edits by Committee of Five)
    • Context: American colonies declaring separation from Great Britain
    • Key Ideas:
      • Natural Rights Philosophy - "All men are created equal" with unalienable rights to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness"
      • Social Contract - Governments derive "just powers from the consent of the governed"
      • Right of Revolution - When government violates rights, people have right/duty to alter or abolish it
      • List of Grievances - 27 specific complaints against King George III justifying separation
    • Significance: Established foundational American principles; influenced constitutions worldwide; equality principle used by later reform movements
    • Key Quote: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal..."
  • THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION (1781-1789)
    • Context: First constitution; in effect during Revolutionary War and immediate aftermath
    • Structure: Unicameral legislature (Congress); no executive or judicial branch; "league of friendship" among sovereign states
    • Powers of Congress: Declare war, make treaties, coin money, establish post office, settle disputes between states
    • Limitations: No power to tax (only request funds from states), no power to regulate commerce, no power to enforce laws, required unanimous consent for amendments, each state had one vote
    • Problems:
      • Inability to raise revenue led to debt and inability to pay soldiers
      • Trade disputes between states damaged economy
      • No way to enforce compliance with treaties (angered Britain, Spain)
      • Shays' Rebellion (1786-87) exposed inability to maintain order
    • Significance: Demonstrated need for stronger central government; led to Constitutional Convention; showed dangers of too weak a government
  • THE CONSTITUTION (1789)
    • Context: Philadelphia Convention (1787) replaced Articles with new framework
    • Structure: Seven articles establishing three branches, federalism, amendment process, supremacy clause
    • Key Principles:
      • Popular Sovereignty - "We the People" establishes democratic foundation
      • Separation of Powers - Legislative (Article I), Executive (Article II), Judicial (Article III)
      • Checks and Balances - Each branch can limit the others
      • Federalism - Power divided between national and state governments
      • Limited Government - Enumerated powers, Bill of Rights constraints
      • Judicial Review - Implied power established in Marbury v. Madison
    • Flexibility: Amendment process (Article V), elastic clause (implied powers), vague language allows adaptation
    • Significance: Oldest written national constitution still in use; framework for stable, adaptable government; model for other nations
  • BRUTUS NO. 1 (1787)
    • Author: Anonymous Anti-Federalist (likely Robert Yates)
    • Context: Published during ratification debate to oppose Constitution
    • Main Arguments:
      • Republic Too Large - Geographic size and population diversity make representative government impractical; cannot reflect will of people
      • Federal Power Too Great - National government will swallow state governments; "necessary and proper" clause gives unlimited power
      • Taxation Threat - Federal power to tax will bankrupt states and people
      • Standing Army Danger - Federal army threatens liberty; historical lesson that standing armies lead to tyranny
      • No Bill of Rights - Constitution lacks protections for individual liberties
    • Key Quote: "In a republic, the manners, sentiments, and interests of the people should be similar...this is not practicable in the extent of country..."
    • Significance: Represents Anti-Federalist concerns; influenced addition of Bill of Rights; ongoing debate over federal power
  • FEDERALIST NO. 10 (1787)
    • Author: James Madison (as "Publius")
    • Context: Published to promote Constitution ratification
    • Problem: Factions (groups united by self-interest contrary to common good) are inevitable in free society
    • Solutions Rejected:
      • Remove liberty (worse than disease)
      • Give everyone same opinions/interests (impractical)
      • Small direct democracy (tyranny of majority)
    • Madison's Solution:
      • Large Republic - More factions mean less likely any one dominates; diversity of interests provides checks
      • Representative Government - Representatives filter and refine public views; larger districts mean more qualified representatives
      • Extended Territory - Geographic size makes coordination among factions difficult
    • Key Quote: "Extend the sphere, and you take in a greater variety of parties and interests; you make it less probable that a majority of the whole will have a common motive..."
    • Significance: Explains why large republic is superior to small democracy; foundational defense of pluralism; still relevant to interest group politics
  • FEDERALIST NO. 51 (1788)
    • Author: James Madison (as "Publius")
    • Context: Defending Constitution's structure and checks and balances
    • Main Arguments:
      • Separation of Powers - Each department must have "a will of its own"; independent selection and tenure
      • Checks and Balances - "Ambition must be made to counteract ambition"; each branch defends its prerogatives
      • Human Nature - If men were angels, no government needed; since not, government must control governed and itself
      • Compound Republic - Federalism (national/state division) provides additional security; "double security" for liberty
    • Key Quotes:
      • "Ambition must be made to counteract ambition"
      • "If men were angels, no government would be necessary"
      • "In framing a government...you must first enable the government to control the governed; and in the next place oblige it to control itself"
    • Significance: Classic explanation of separation of powers and checks and balances; justifies institutional complexity
  • FEDERALIST NO. 70 (1788)
    • Author: Alexander Hamilton (as "Publius")
    • Context: Defending unitary executive (single president)
    • Main Arguments:
      • Energy in Executive - Strong executive necessary for good government; provides decisiveness, activity, secrecy, dispatch
      • Unity is Essential - Single executive better than plural; avoids disagreement, delay, responsibility diffusion
      • Accountability - Single person can be held responsible; plural executive allows blame-shifting
      • Against Executive Council - Advisory councils dilute responsibility without improving decisions
    • Key Quote: "Energy in the executive is a leading character in the definition of good government"
    • Significance: Justifies presidential power; ongoing relevance to debates about executive authority, unitary executive theory
  • FEDERALIST NO. 78 (1788)
    • Author: Alexander Hamilton (as "Publius")
    • Context: Defending independent judiciary and judicial review
    • Main Arguments:
      • "Least Dangerous Branch" - Judiciary has "neither force nor will, but merely judgment"; controls neither purse nor sword
      • Independence Essential - Lifetime tenure necessary for judicial independence; protects against political pressure
      • Judicial Review - Courts must declare unconstitutional laws void; Constitution superior to ordinary legislation; judges are guardians of Constitution
      • Limited Power - Judiciary depends on executive for enforcement, legislature for impeachment/jurisdiction
    • Key Quotes:
      • Judiciary is "the least dangerous" branch
      • "The interpretation of the laws is the proper and peculiar province of the courts"
      • "The constitution ought to be preferred to the statute"
    • Significance: First articulation of judicial review before Marbury v. Madison; justifies judicial independence and life tenure
  • LETTER FROM BIRMINGHAM JAIL (1963)
    • Author: Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.
    • Context: Written during imprisonment for participating in nonviolent protests in Birmingham, Alabama; response to white clergy criticizing demonstrations
    • Main Arguments:
      • Just vs. Unjust Laws
        • Just law: Squares with moral law; uplifts human personality; applies equally
        • Unjust law: Out of harmony with moral law; degrades human personality; imposed on minority that had no voice in making it
        • Moral obligation to disobey unjust laws
      • Criticism of "White Moderate" - More obstacle than KKK; prefers "negative peace" (absence of tension) over "positive peace" (presence of justice); says "wait" which means "never"
      • Nonviolent Direct Action - Creates tension/crisis that forces negotiation; "constructive nonviolent tension"
      • Urgency - "Justice too long delayed is justice denied"; "wait" has meant "never"
    • Key Quotes:
      • " Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere"
      • "One has a moral responsibility to disobey unjust laws"
      • "We know through painful experience that freedom is never voluntarily given by the oppressor; it must be demanded by the oppressed"
    • Significance: Philosophical foundation for civil disobedience; influenced Civil Rights Movement; ongoing relevance to social justice movements; connects to American tradition of protest (Boston Tea Party, Thoreau)
📝 Bill of Rights (Amendments 1-10) ▼
  • 1st Amendment - Freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, petition
    • Establishment Clause - no official religion
    • Free Exercise Clause - practice religion freely
    • Most fundamental freedoms; cornerstone of democracy
  • 2nd Amendment - Right to bear arms
    • "A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed"
    • Interpreted as individual right in Heller and McDonald
  • 3rd Amendment - No quartering of soldiers in private homes without consent
    • Response to British practice; rarely invoked today
  • 4th Amendment - Protection against unreasonable searches and seizures
    • Requires warrants based on probable cause
    • Exclusionary rule - illegally obtained evidence inadmissible
    • Basis for privacy rights
  • 5th Amendment - Rights in criminal cases
    • Grand jury indictment for serious crimes
    • Protection against double jeopardy (tried twice for same offense)
    • Right against self-incrimination ("plead the Fifth")
    • Due process clause - government cannot deprive life, liberty, property without due process
    • Takings clause - eminent domain requires just compensation
  • 6th Amendment - Rights of accused in criminal prosecutions
    • Speedy and public trial
    • Impartial jury
    • Informed of charges
    • Confront witnesses
    • Compel favorable witnesses
    • Right to counsel (attorney)
  • 7th Amendment - Right to jury trial in civil cases
    • Applies to federal civil cases exceeding $20
    • Not incorporated to states
  • 8th Amendment - Protection against excessive punishment
    • No excessive bail or fines
    • No cruel and unusual punishment
    • Basis for challenges to death penalty, prison conditions
  • 9th Amendment - Rights retained by the people
    • "Enumeration...of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people"
    • Acknowledges unenumerated rights
    • Used to support right to privacy
  • 10th Amendment - Powers reserved to states and people
    • "Powers not delegated to the United States...are reserved to the States...or to the people"
    • Federalism principle; limits federal power
    • Basis for states' rights arguments
📋 Subsequent Amendments (11-27) ▼
  • 11th (1795) - State sovereign immunity from federal lawsuits by citizens of other states
  • 12th (1804) - Separate electoral votes for President and Vice President; prevents tie between running mates
  • 13th (1865) - Abolished slavery and involuntary servitude (except as punishment for crime)
  • 14th (1868) - Citizenship clause, due process, equal protection
    • All persons born/naturalized in U.S. are citizens
    • States cannot abridge privileges/immunities
    • Due process clause - basis for incorporation of Bill of Rights
    • Equal protection clause - foundation for civil rights
  • 15th (1870) - Voting rights cannot be denied based on race, color, or previous servitude
    • Circumvented by literacy tests, poll taxes, grandfather clauses until Voting Rights Act (1965)
  • 16th (1913) - Authorized federal income tax without apportionment among states
  • 17th (1913) - Direct election of senators by popular vote (previously chosen by state legislatures)
  • 18th (1919) - Prohibition of alcohol
    • Only amendment later repealed (by 21st)
  • 19th (1920) - Women's suffrage; voting rights cannot be denied based on sex
  • 20th (1933) - "Lame Duck" Amendment
    • Moved presidential inauguration from March 4 to January 20
    • Congressional terms begin January 3
    • Reduced transition period
  • 21st (1933) - Repealed 18th Amendment (prohibition); ended nationwide alcohol ban
  • 22nd (1951) - Presidential term limits; maximum two terms (or 10 years total)
    • Response to FDR's four terms
  • 23rd (1961) - Washington D.C. granted electoral votes (equal to least populous state = 3)
  • 24th (1964) - Prohibited poll taxes in federal elections
    • Removed financial barrier to voting
  • 25th (1967) - Presidential succession and disability
    • VP becomes President if President removed/dies/resigns
    • President nominates new VP (subject to congressional approval)
    • Procedures for temporary/permanent presidential disability
  • 26th (1971) - Lowered voting age to 18
    • Response to Vietnam War ("old enough to fight, old enough to vote")
  • 27th (1992) - Congressional pay changes take effect only after next election
    • Originally proposed 1789; ratified 203 years later
    • Prevents Congress from immediately raising own salaries
⚖️ Required Supreme Court Cases ▼
  • MARBURY V. MADISON (1803)
    • Facts: William Marbury appointed Justice of Peace by outgoing President Adams; commission not delivered before Jefferson took office; new Secretary of State Madison refused to deliver it
    • Issue: Can courts compel executive officials to perform duties? Does Supreme Court have jurisdiction?
    • Holding: Supreme Court cannot issue writ of mandamus; section of Judiciary Act granting this power is unconstitutional
    • Reasoning: Constitution is supreme law; laws contrary to Constitution are void; courts have duty to interpret Constitution and declare laws unconstitutional
    • Significance: Established judicial review - power of courts to declare laws unconstitutional; made judiciary co-equal branch; foundation of constitutional law
  • MCCULLOCH V. MARYLAND (1819)
    • Facts: Congress created Second Bank of United States; Maryland taxed bank to drive it out; bank cashier McCulloch refused to pay
    • Issues: Does Congress have power to create national bank? Can states tax federal institutions?
    • Holding: Congress has implied power to create bank; Maryland cannot tax federal institution
    • Reasoning: Necessary and Proper Clause grants implied powers; "power to tax is power to destroy" - states cannot tax federal government; national supremacy over states
    • Significance: Broadly interpreted federal powers; established federal supremacy; limited state interference with federal government; expansive view of implied powers
  • SCHENCK V. UNITED STATES (1919)
    • Facts: Charles Schenck distributed leaflets urging resistance to WWI draft; charged with violating Espionage Act
    • Issue: Does First Amendment protect anti-war speech?
    • Holding: Conviction upheld; speech not protected in this context
    • Reasoning: "Clear and present danger" test - speech can be limited if it creates clear and present danger of substantive evils Congress has right to prevent; context matters (wartime vs. peacetime)
    • Significance: Established that First Amendment not absolute; government can restrict speech in certain circumstances; famous analogy: "falsely shouting fire in a theatre"
    • Note: Later refined by Brandenburg test (imminent lawless action)
  • BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION (1954)
    • Facts: Black students denied admission to white schools under "separate but equal" doctrine from Plessy v. Ferguson
    • Issue: Does school segregation violate Equal Protection Clause?
    • Holding: School segregation is unconstitutional; "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal"
    • Reasoning: Segregation generates feeling of inferiority; affects motivation to learn; deprives minority children of equal educational opportunities; psychological harm
    • Significance: Overturned Plessy v. Ferguson; catalyst for Civil Rights Movement; ended legal segregation; difficult enforcement (Brown II required desegregation "with all deliberate speed")
  • BAKER V. CARR (1962)
    • Facts: Tennessee hadn't reapportioned legislative districts since 1901 despite population changes; urban areas underrepresented
    • Issue: Is legislative reapportionment a justiciable question (can courts decide) or political question?
    • Holding: Reapportionment challenges are justiciable; federal courts can hear these cases
    • Reasoning: Equal Protection Clause violated by malapportionment; not merely political question
    • Significance: Opened door to "one person, one vote" principle; led to nationwide redistricting; increased urban/suburban representation; courts can review redistricting
  • ENGEL V. VITALE (1962)
    • Facts: New York Board of Regents composed official prayer for public schools; voluntary but officially sanctioned
    • Issue: Does school-sponsored prayer violate Establishment Clause?
    • Holding: Official school prayer unconstitutional, even if voluntary
    • Reasoning: Government cannot compose official prayers; violates Establishment Clause; coercive nature of school setting; doesn't matter if prayer is denominationally neutral or voluntary
    • Significance: Prohibited official school-sponsored religious activities; controversial decision; led to other cases limiting school religious practices; reinforced separation of church and state
  • GIDEON V. WAINWRIGHT (1963)
    • Facts: Clarence Gideon charged with felony in Florida; too poor to afford lawyer; request for appointed counsel denied; convicted
    • Issue: Does Sixth Amendment right to counsel apply to state felony cases?
    • Holding: States must provide attorneys for indigent defendants in felony cases
    • Reasoning: Right to counsel fundamental to fair trial; incorporated to states via 14th Amendment Due Process; cannot have fair trial without lawyer
    • Significance: Established right to appointed counsel in state felony cases; created public defender systems; selective incorporation of 6th Amendment; fundamental to criminal justice
  • TINKER V. DES MOINES (1969)
    • Facts: Students wore black armbands to protest Vietnam War; suspended for violating school policy
    • Issue: Do students have First Amendment rights in school?
    • Holding: Students' symbolic speech protected; suspension violated First Amendment
    • Reasoning: Students don't "shed constitutional rights at schoolhouse gate"; symbolic speech protected unless causes substantial disruption; silent, passive expression; school must show more than fear of disturbance
    • Significance: Established student speech rights; schools must balance order with liberty; standard: substantial disruption or invasion of others' rights; foundation for student rights cases
  • NEW YORK TIMES CO. V. UNITED STATES (1971) - "Pentagon Papers"
    • Facts: New York Times obtained classified study of Vietnam War; government sought injunction to prevent publication
    • Issue: Can government prevent publication of classified information (prior restraint)?
    • Holding: Government cannot prevent publication; prior restraint unconstitutional
    • Reasoning: Prior restraint presumed unconstitutional; heavy burden on government to justify; First Amendment protects press freedom; didn't show grave and irreparable danger
    • Significance: Strong protection for press freedom; prior restraint almost never allowed; government can prosecute after publication but rarely prevent publication; watchdog role of press
  • WISCONSIN V. YODER (1972)
    • Facts: Amish parents refused to send children to school past 8th grade; violated compulsory education law
    • Issue: Does Free Exercise Clause exempt Amish from compulsory education laws?
    • Holding: Amish entitled to exemption based on religious beliefs
    • Reasoning: Compulsory high school attendance violated sincerely held religious beliefs; state interest in education didn't outweigh Free Exercise; long tradition of self-sufficient Amish community
    • Significance: Established religious exemption from neutral laws when sincere beliefs burdened; balanced state interest against religious freedom; limited by later cases
  • SHAW V. RENO (1993)
    • Facts: North Carolina created majority-minority district with bizarre shape to comply with Voting Rights Act
    • Issue: Does race-based redistricting violate Equal Protection?
    • Holding: Racial gerrymandering subject to strict scrutiny; district's shape suggested racial motivation
    • Reasoning: Using race as predominant factor in drawing districts triggers strict scrutiny; must serve compelling interest and be narrowly tailored; "political apartheid"
    • Significance: Limits on race-conscious redistricting; balancing minority representation with Equal Protection; ongoing tension with Voting Rights Act compliance
  • UNITED STATES V. LOPEZ (1995)
    • Facts: Alfonso Lopez brought gun to school; charged under Gun-Free School Zones Act (federal law)
    • Issue: Does Commerce Clause give Congress power to regulate guns near schools?
    • Holding: Gun-Free School Zones Act exceeds Congress's Commerce Clause power; unconstitutional
    • Reasoning: Gun possession near school not economic activity; too attenuated from interstate commerce; if allowed, no limit to federal power; categories of commerce power: channels, instrumentalities, activities substantially affecting commerce
    • Significance: First case in decades to limit Commerce Clause; reasserted limits on federal power; federalism decision; states have primary role in criminal law
  • MCDONALD V. CHICAGO (2010)
    • Facts: Chicago banned handgun possession; McDonald challenged under Second Amendment
    • Issue: Does Second Amendment apply to states?
    • Holding: Second Amendment incorporated to states via 14th Amendment; Chicago handgun ban unconstitutional
    • Reasoning: Right to keep and bear arms is fundamental right necessary to our system of ordered liberty; self-defense is core component; incorporated through Due Process Clause
    • Significance: Extended Heller to states; incorporated Second Amendment; limits on state/local gun regulations; ongoing debate about scope of right and permissible regulations
  • CITIZENS UNITED V. FEC (2010)
    • Facts: Citizens United wanted to air film critical of Hillary Clinton near primary election; FEC said violated campaign finance law prohibiting corporate electioneering
    • Issue: Can government restrict corporate political spending?
    • Holding: Corporate independent political expenditures protected by First Amendment; restrictions unconstitutional
    • Reasoning: Political speech is most protected speech; corporations have free speech rights; independent expenditures don't cause corruption or appearance thereof; cannot restrict speech based on speaker's identity
    • Significance: Transformed campaign finance; enabled Super PACs; unlimited independent expenditures; highly controversial; concerns about corporate influence vs. free speech protection
📚 AP US Government Exam Format ▼
  • Exam Structure: 3 hours total
    • Section I: 55 Multiple Choice Questions - 80 minutes (50% of score)
    • Section II: 4 Free Response Questions - 100 minutes (50% of score)
  • Multiple Choice Section
    • 55 questions in 80 minutes (about 1.5 minutes per question)
    • Questions may be discrete or in sets based on stimulus (text, chart, graph, political cartoon, map)
    • Skills Tested:
      • Concept identification and explanation
      • Comparison of political principles and processes
      • Interpretation of data and visual sources
      • Application of concepts to scenarios
    • Content Distribution:
      • Unit 1 (Foundations): 15-22%
      • Unit 2 (Branches): 25-36%
      • Unit 3 (Civil Liberties/Rights): 13-18%
      • Unit 4 (Ideologies/Beliefs): 10-15%
      • Unit 5 (Participation): 20-27%
    • Strategies:
      • Read questions carefully; identify what's being asked
      • Eliminate obviously wrong answers
      • Pay attention to qualifiers (always, never, most, least)
      • Use process of elimination
      • Don't leave blanks - no penalty for guessing
  • Free Response Question 1: Concept Application (20 minutes recommended)
    • Format: Authentic political scenario followed by 3 tasks
    • Points: 3 total (1 point per task)
    • Tasks typically include:
      • (a) Describe political institution, behavior, or process
      • (b) Explain how scenario illustrates concept
      • (c) Explain effect or consequence of action described
    • Strategies:
      • Read scenario carefully; identify key institutions/processes
      • Answer each part completely but concisely
      • Use specific details from scenario
      • Define terms clearly
      • Make explicit connections between scenario and concepts
  • Free Response Question 2: Quantitative Analysis (20 minutes recommended)
    • Format: Data presented in table, chart, graph, infographic, or map
    • Points: 4 total
    • Tasks typically include:
      • (a) Describe data/pattern shown (1 point)
      • (b) Describe similarity/difference or trend (1 point)
      • (c) Draw conclusion or explain cause of pattern (1 point)
      • (d) Explain how data relates to political principle/process (1 point)
    • Strategies:
      • Read title, labels, legend carefully
      • Identify clear patterns, trends, outliers
      • Use specific numbers from data
      • Make comparisons explicit
      • Connect data to broader political concepts
  • Free Response Question 3: SCOTUS Comparison (20 minutes recommended)
    • Format: Required SCOTUS case compared with non-required case (description provided)
    • Points: 4 total
    • Tasks typically include:
      • (a) Identify constitutional clause/amendment (1 point)
      • (b) Describe facts, issue, or holding of required case (1 point)
      • (c) Explain similarity or difference in reasoning/holding (1 point)
      • (d) Describe interaction between case and political institution/process (1 point)
    • Strategies:
      • Know required cases thoroughly (facts, issues, holdings, reasoning)
      • Read non-required case description carefully
      • Make direct comparisons
      • Be specific about similarities/differences
      • Connect to broader constitutional principles
  • Free Response Question 4: Argument Essay (40 minutes recommended)
    • Format: Prompt requiring argument supported by evidence from foundational documents and reasoning
    • Points: 6 total
    • Rubric:
      • Thesis/Claim (1 point): Respond to prompt with defensible claim or thesis
      • Evidence from Documents (2 points):
        • 1 point: Use content from one foundational document
        • 2 points: Use content from two foundational documents
      • Evidence from Course (1 point): Use reasoning/examples from course beyond documents
      • Reasoning (1 point): Explain how evidence supports thesis; use logical line of reasoning
      • Respond to Opposing View (1 point): Acknowledge and refute alternative perspective
    • Strategies:
      • Take 5-10 minutes to plan before writing
      • Create clear, defensible thesis that directly answers prompt
      • Choose foundational documents you know well
      • Quote/paraphrase specific content from documents
      • Explain how evidence supports your argument (analysis, not just description)
      • Consider counterarguments and explain why your position is stronger
      • Organize clearly with introduction, body paragraphs, conclusion
      • Leave time to proofread
  • General FRQ Tips
    • Budget time carefully (20-20-20-40 recommended)
    • Answer all parts of each question
    • Use political science terminology accurately
    • Be specific - avoid vague generalities
    • Write in complete sentences
    • Label your responses (a, b, c, d)
    • If you finish early, review and add details
    • Quality over quantity - concise, accurate responses better than rambling
  • Study Strategies
    • Know foundational documents: Not just names - understand arguments, quotes, significance
    • Know SCOTUS cases: Facts, constitutional issues, holdings, reasoning, significance
    • Understand political processes: How bills become laws, how elections work, how courts operate
    • Practice with real questions: Use released exams from College Board
    • Create study guides: Charts comparing institutions, timelines, flashcards for cases/documents
    • Follow current events: Apply course concepts to real-world politics
    • Form study groups: Teach concepts to others to reinforce understanding
  • Exam Day Tips
    • Get good sleep night before
    • Eat breakfast
    • Bring required materials (pens, pencils, ID)
    • Arrive early to testing location
    • Read all directions carefully
    • Manage time - don't spend too long on any one question
    • Stay calm - if stuck, move on and return later
    • Use all available time - review answers if finish early
💡 Key Terms to Know ▼
  • Federalism - Division of power between national and state governments
  • Bicameral - Two-chamber legislature (House and Senate)
  • Judicial Review - Power of courts to declare laws unconstitutional
  • Selective Incorporation - Applying Bill of Rights to states through 14th Amendment
  • Gerrymandering - Drawing district boundaries for political advantage
  • Filibuster - Senate tactic to delay/block legislation through extended debate
  • Cloture - 60-vote requirement to end Senate filibuster
  • Executive Order - Presidential directive with force of law
  • Precedent (Stare Decisis) - Following previous court decisions
  • Strict Scrutiny - Highest standard of judicial review (race, religion)
  • Political Efficacy - Belief that one's participation makes a difference
  • Retrospective Voting - Voting based on past performance
  • Super PAC - Independent expenditure committee with no contribution limits
  • Iron Triangle - Alliance between congressional committee, agency, interest group
  • Divided Government - Different parties control executive and legislative branches
Tags:
Shares: