Class Periods

17-23

AP Exam Weight

15-25%

Sub-Topics

9 Sections

🌊 Major Themes

• Nature vs. Nurture: Genetics vs. environment influence
• Continuity vs. Discontinuity: Gradual vs. stage-like changes
• Stability vs. Change: Traits persist vs. people change
• Active vs. Passive: Self-directed vs. shaped by environment
• Universal vs. Context-Specific: Common patterns vs. cultural differences
• Normative vs. Non-normative: Typical vs. unique influences

📊 Research Methods

• Cross-Sectional: Compare different age groups at one time
• Longitudinal: Follow same individuals over time
• Sequential: Combines cross-sectional and longitudinal
• Case Study: In-depth study of individual
• Naturalistic Observation: Observe in natural settings
• Experimental: Manipulate variables to test causation

⏰ Timing of Development

• Critical Period: Specific time when development must occur
• Sensitive Period: Optimal time for development (more flexible)
• Imprinting: Rapid learning during critical period
• Example: Language acquisition easiest in childhood
• Plasticity: Brain's ability to reorganize and adapt
• Windows of Opportunity: Prime times for specific learning

🧬 Nature vs. Nurture

• Maturation: Genetically programmed biological changes
• Learning: Changes due to experience and environment
• Gene-Environment Interaction: Genes and environment work together
• Epigenetics: Environment affects gene expression
• Modern View: Both nature and nurture essential
• Twin Studies: Help separate genetic and environmental effects

📈 Types of Development

• Physical Development: Body and brain changes
• Cognitive Development: Thinking and reasoning abilities
• Social Development: Relationships and social skills
• Emotional Development: Understanding and managing emotions
• Moral Development: Sense of right and wrong
• Language Development: Communication abilities

🎭 Developmental Stages

• Prenatal: Conception to birth (9 months)
• Infancy: Birth to 2 years
• Early Childhood: 2-6 years
• Middle Childhood: 6-12 years
• Adolescence: 12-18 years
• Adulthood: Early, middle, and late adulthood

🤱 Prenatal Development

• Germinal Stage: 0-2 weeks, cell division and implantation
• Embryonic Stage: 2-8 weeks, major organs form
• Fetal Stage: 8 weeks-birth, growth and organ maturation
• Critical Periods: Times of highest vulnerability
• Neural Tube: Forms brain and spinal cord (week 3-4)
• Age of Viability: ~22-26 weeks, survival possible

☠️ Teratogens

• Definition: Environmental factors causing birth defects
• Alcohol: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
• Drugs: Cocaine, heroin affect brain development
• Diseases: Rubella, Zika virus cause malformations
• Radiation: X-rays can damage developing tissues
• Timing Matters: Greatest impact during critical periods

👶 Infant Development

• Reflexes: Automatic responses (rooting, sucking, grasping)
• Motor Development: Cephalocaudal (head to toe) pattern
• Proximodistal: Center to extremities development
• Milestones: Sit (6 months), walk (12 months)
• Brain Growth: Rapid synapse formation and pruning
• Myelination: Improves neural transmission speed

🧒 Childhood Development

• Growth Spurts: Periods of rapid physical growth
• Fine Motor Skills: Drawing, writing abilities develop
• Gross Motor Skills: Running, jumping, coordination
• Brain Development: Prefrontal cortex matures slowly
• Sleep Patterns: Change from infancy through childhood
• Nutrition Impact: Critical for healthy development

🧑‍🦱 Adolescent Development

• Puberty: Sexual maturation and growth spurt
• Primary Sex Characteristics: Reproductive organs mature
• Secondary Sex Characteristics: Voice, body hair, body shape
• Hormones: Testosterone, estrogen drive changes
• Brain Changes: Limbic system develops before prefrontal cortex
• Risk-Taking: Due to brain development patterns

👥 Adult Development & Aging

• Peak Physical Performance: Usually in 20s-30s
• Menopause: End of reproductive years (around 50)
• Andropause: Gradual decline in testosterone
• Sensory Changes: Vision, hearing decline with age
• Cellular Aging: Telomere shortening, free radical damage
• Individual Differences: Genetics and lifestyle affect aging

🔬 Key Definitions

• Sex: Biological characteristics (chromosomes, hormones, anatomy)
• Gender: Social and cultural roles, behaviors, expectations
• Gender Identity: Personal sense of being male, female, or other
• Gender Expression: How gender identity is communicated
• Sexual Orientation: Pattern of emotional/sexual attraction
• Intersex: Atypical combinations of sexual characteristics

🧬 Biological Influences

• Sex Chromosomes: XY (typical male), XX (typical female)
• Hormones: Testosterone and estrogen affect development
• Prenatal Hormones: Influence brain organization
• Genetic Factors: Twin studies suggest genetic influence
• Brain Differences: Some structural differences found
• Epigenetics: Environment affects gene expression

🏛️ Theories of Gender Development

• Social Learning Theory: Gender learned through observation/imitation
• Cognitive-Developmental: Gender understanding develops with cognition
• Gender Schema Theory: Children organize info around gender categories
• Biological Theory: Hormones and genetics influence gender
• Psychoanalytic Theory: Gender identity through identification
• Biosocial Theory: Biology and society interact

🌈 Sexual Orientation Development

• Heterosexual: Attraction to different gender
• Homosexual: Attraction to same gender
• Bisexual: Attraction to both genders
• Pansexual: Attraction regardless of gender
• Asexual: Little or no sexual attraction
• Development: Often emerges during adolescence

👑 Gender Roles & Stereotypes

• Gender Roles: Expected behaviors for males/females
• Gender Stereotypes: Overgeneralized beliefs about genders
• Cultural Variation: Roles vary across cultures and time
• Socialization Agents: Family, peers, media, schools
• Gender Typing: Process of acquiring gender roles
• Androgyny: Combination of masculine and feminine traits

🏳️‍⚧️ Gender Identity Development

• Gender Constancy: Understanding gender doesn't change
• Timeline: Basic identity by age 2-3
• Gender Dysphoria: Distress from gender identity-body mismatch
• Transgender: Gender identity differs from assigned sex
• Non-binary: Gender identity outside male/female binary
• Support: Acceptance improves mental health outcomes

🏗️ Piaget's Key Concepts

• Schema: Mental framework for understanding world
• Assimilation: Fit new info into existing schemas
• Accommodation: Change schemas to fit new info
• Equilibration: Balance between assimilation and accommodation
• Object Permanence: Objects exist when out of sight
• Conservation: Quantity remains same despite appearance changes

🤝 Vygotsky's Theory

• Zone of Proximal Development: Gap between what child can do alone vs with help
• Scaffolding: Temporary support to help learning
• Social Interaction: Learning occurs through social interaction
• Cultural Tools: Language, symbols aid thinking
• Private Speech: Self-talk helps regulate behavior
• More Knowledgeable Other: Person with greater skill/knowledge

💭 Theory of Mind

• Definition: Understanding that others have beliefs, desires, thoughts
• False-Belief Task: Test of theory of mind (Sally-Anne task)
• Development: Emerges around age 4-5
• Autism Spectrum: Often shows delays in theory of mind
• Social Implications: Critical for social interaction
• Cultural Variations: Some differences across cultures

🔄 Information Processing

• Processing Speed: Increases from childhood to adulthood
• Working Memory: Capacity increases with age
• Attention: Becomes more selective and sustained
• Metacognition: Thinking about thinking develops
• Executive Functions: Planning, inhibition, flexibility
• Automaticity: Skills become more automatic with practice

🧓 Adult Cognitive Development

• Crystallized Intelligence: Accumulated knowledge (stable/increases)
• Fluid Intelligence: Processing speed, reasoning (declines)
• Wisdom: Expert knowledge in fundamental life matters
• Cognitive Reserve: Brain's resilience to damage
• Selective Optimization: Focus on important abilities
• Compensation: Use alternative strategies

🧐 Cognitive Aging

• Normal Aging: Some decline in processing speed, working memory
• Mild Cognitive Impairment: Greater than normal decline
• Dementia: Severe cognitive decline interfering with daily life
• Alzheimer's Disease: Most common form of dementia
• Protective Factors: Education, exercise, social engagement
• Individual Differences: Wide variation in aging patterns

👶 Early Language Development

• Crying: First form of communication (0-2 months)
• Cooing: Pleasure sounds (2-4 months)
• Babbling: Consonant-vowel combinations (4-10 months)
• First Words: Around 12 months
• Two-Word Stage: Telegraphic speech (18-24 months)
• Grammar Explosion: 2-5 years

🧬 Theories of Language Acquisition

• Behaviorist (Skinner): Imitation and reinforcement
• Nativist (Chomsky): Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
• Social Interactionist: Social interaction drives learning
• Cognitive Theory: Language follows cognitive development
• Usage-Based: Statistical learning from input

Pavlov's Elements

• UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus (food)
• UCR: Unconditioned Response (salivation)
• CS: Conditioned Stimulus (bell)
• CR: Conditioned Response (salivation to bell)

Key Processes

• Acquisition: Learning phase
• Extinction: CS without UCS
• Spontaneous Recovery: CR returns
• Generalization: Similar stimuli trigger CR
• Discrimination: Distinguish between stimuli

Skinner's Principles

• Positive Reinforcement: Add pleasant stimulus
• Negative Reinforcement: Remove unpleasant stimulus
• Positive Punishment: Add unpleasant stimulus
• Negative Punishment: Remove pleasant stimulus

Reinforcement Schedules

• Continuous: Every response reinforced
• Fixed Ratio: After set number of responses
• Variable Ratio: After average number
• Fixed Interval: After set time period
• Variable Interval: After average time

Bandura's Social Learning

• Observational Learning: Learn by watching others
• Modeling: Imitate observed behaviors
• Vicarious Learning: Learn from others' consequences
• Bobo Doll Study: Children imitate aggressive models

Cognitive Factors

• Attention: Must notice behavior
• Retention: Remember observed behavior
• Reproduction: Ability to perform behavior
• Motivation: Incentive to perform behavior