IGCSE Accounting | RivisionTown

Introduction to accounting

Bookkeeping:

The detailed recording of all the financial transactions of business is known as bookkeeping.

Accounting:

Accounting makes use of these records to prepare periodic financial statements, which can be used to assess the performance of the business.

Double entry bookkeeping:

Every business is different, so the records maintained will very because of the different information which is required, but the basis of all the accounting systems is double entry bookkeeping.

Trading and profit and loss account:

The aim of the business is to make a profit. A Trading and Profit and loss Account is prepared which shows the calculation of the profit or loss earned by the business.

Balance sheet:

The owner of a business needs to know the financial position of the business, so a Balance sheet is prepared. This summarizes the position of a business, in monetary terms on a certain date.

Assets and liabilities:

The balance sheet shows what the business owns, known as assets, and what the business owes, known as liabilities.

Complete the exercises of your accounting book.

Double entry bookkeeping part A

Day-to-day business transactions are recorded using the double entry system.
This dual aspect of a giving and receiving is recorded in the day-today records.
A simple T account is divided into two sides by the centre line.
The left-hand side is the debit side (abbreviated to Dr.) and the right-hand side is the credit side (abbreviated to Cr.)

There is a giving and receiving in every transaction, two entries are made- a debit in one account and a credit in another account.

2.1 Example: March 1 2010 Abdul set up a business. He opened a business bank account and paid in $40000 as capital.

2.2 Debit and credit Rules:

At first, it is natural for the debit/credit rules to seem confusing. However, the debit/credit rules are logical.
You are advised to memorize the debit/credit rules.

2.3 Assets, expenses:

2.4 Example: March 2, 2010. Business bought premises for $20,000 and paid by cheque.

2.5 Liabilities, Revenues and Capital

2.6 Complete exercise on page 8 of your accounting book.

2.7 Sales, purchases and returns

Two accounts are needed to record the purchase of goods in which the business trades, and the later sale of those goods. These must be kept separate as the goods will come in at cost price and usually go out at a higher price, which enables the business to earn a profit. Instead of a Goods account, there is a purchases account and a sales account.

Complete exercises on pages 12-14

Carriage inwards: it occurs when business has to pay for purchased goods to be delivered to its premises.

Carriage outwards: it occurs when a business pays for sold goods to be delivered to its customers’ premises.

Drawings: it is the term used when the owner of a business takes any value from the business for his/her own use. This may be in the form of money, goods, or even fixed assets.

To avoid the capital account having a large number of entries, a drawing account is used to record all amounts with drawn by the owner. At the end of the year the total of drawing account is transferred to the capital account, and so reduces the amount invested by the owner.

The Trial Balance

A trial balance is a list of the balances of accounts contained in the ledger
The trial balance can assist in locating errors.
It is, however important to remember that it only indicates that the total debits equal the total credits.
It does not prove the complete accuracy of the bookkeeping.

It is necessary to know which ledger account has a debit balance ad which has a credit balance. Certain types of account always have debit balance and certain types of account always have a credit balance.

Trial Balance as at Feb. 2010

Name of accounts	Dr.	Cr.
Assets(cash, stock, premises, debtor, etc)	√
Expenses (rent, insurance, wages, etc)	√
Drawings	√
Purchases	√
Sales returns	√
Liabilities (loans, creditors, etc)		√
Income (commission received, rent received, etc)		√
Sales		√
Purchase returns		√
Provision for depreciation		√
Provision for doubtful debts		√
	50,000	50,000

Complete the exercises of your accounting book on pages (26-27)

Double entry bookkeeping part B

The two-column cash book

In two-column cash book the cash account and bank account appear side by side.

How to record transaction

Any money received is recorded on the debit side and entered in the appropriate column, depending on where it was put in the cash column or put into the bank column.
Any money paid is recorded on the credit side, being shown in the cash column if it was paid in cash, and bank column it was paid by cheque.
It is important to remember that there are two accounts side by side, and each account must be balanced separately.
Contra entries:
1. Cash withdrawn from the bank and placed in the cash
  Debit cash account
  Credit bank account
2. Cash deposited/ paid into the bank
  Debit bank account
  Credit cash account
Dishonored cheques:
1. A dishonored cheque is a cheque that a business has received from a customer and which the customer’s bank refuses to pay.
2. The cheque is returned to the business that paid it into the bank and it is recorded on the credit side of the cash book.

Look at the example on page 30 in your accounting book.

The three-column cash book

Cash discount:

c. It is common to find a third column on each side of cash book where cash discount can be recorded.

Discount allowed:

d. It when the business allows its customers a discount when they pay their accounts within the time limit set by the business.

Discount received:

e. It is when the business receives a discount when it pays its suppliers within the time limit they set.

The layout of cash book

Hasan Trading Company

Cash Book

Date	Details	Discount Allowed	Cash	Bank	Date	Details	Discount Received	Cash	Bank

Petty cash book

A petty cash book is used to record low-value cash payments such as postages, travelling expenses and window cleaning.

When paying out cash, the petty cashier should obtain a petty cash voucher. This voucher is presented by the person receiving the cash. It should show details of the expenditure and be signed to indicate that the money has been received from the petty cashier.

What is imprest system of petty cashbook?

The petty cashier starts each period with a certain amount of money. This system is known as imprest system. At the end of the period, when the petty cash book is balanced, the chief cashier will give the petty cashier enough cash to restore the balance remaining to the imprest amount.

How to write up a petty cash book?

The petty cash book is debited with amounts received.
Any money paid out is entered on the credit side under the total paid column.
Add up the total paid column
Total each of the analysis columns.
Balance the petty cash book and carry down the balance.
Debit the petty cash book with the amount received to restore the imprest.

The layout of a petty cash book

Hasan and sons’ company

Petty cash book

Date	Details	Total Received	Date	Details	Total Paid	Postages	Office Expenses	Motor	Cleaning

Complete exercises on page 43 & 45 of your book

Business documents and books of prime entry

Invoice:

When goods are sold on credit, the supplier will issue an invoice.
The original copy of the invoice is sent to the customer, who uses it to record his credit purchases.
A copy of the invoice is retained by the seller, who uses it to record his credit sales.
Sometimes a deduction is shown on an invoice for Trade Discount.

Debit Note:

The purchaser may send a debit note to the supplier to report any faults, shortages overcharges or damaged goods.

Credit Note:

When goods are returned, a supplier may issue a credit note.
This reduces the amount owed by the customer.

Statement of Account:

It is usual for a supplier to issue a monthly statement of account to the customer.
A statement of account acts as a reminder to the customer of the amount due.
The customer can also check the statement against his records to ensure that no errors have been made either by himself or by the supplier.

Books of prime entry:

The books of prime entry are:

Sales journal
Petty cash book
Purchase journal
Journal
Sales returns journal
Purchase returns journal
Cash book

Complete exercises on pages 58-62

Final Accounts

At the end of a financial period, usually a year, final accounts are prepared.
Final accounts are consist of a Trading account, a Profit and Loss Account and a Balance Sheet.
Final accounts are usually prepared from a trial balance. Every item in a trial balance appears once in the final accounts.
The basic formula for gross profit is:

Sales – Cost of goods sold = Gross profit

The basic formula to calculate the cost of sales is:

Opening stock + purchases – purchase returns – goods for won use + carriage inwards = cost of sales

The basic formula for Net Profit is:

Gross profit + Other income – Expenses = Net Profit

If additional information of expenses are given then we have to deduct prepaid amount from the expenses paid and we have to add the expenses if they are outstanding.

Layout of trading, profit and loss account

Hasan and Sons’ company

Trading and Profit and loss Account

For the year ended 30 Oct. 2010

	$	$	$
Sales		18600
Less sales returns		180	18420
Less Cost of goods sold
Opening Stock		3200
Purchases	14300
Less purchases returns	400
	13700
Less goods of own use	200
	13500
Add carriage inwards	500	14000	17200
Gross Profit			1220
Add other source of income
Discount Received			350
Total income			1570

Less expense
Wages		150
General expenses		400
Heat and Light		200	750
Net Profit			820

Complete exercise on page 75-76

Layout of Balance Sheet

Hasan and Sons’ company

Balance Sheet as at 30 Oct 2010

Fixed assets	$	$	$
	Cost	Prov. for depreciation	NBV
Premises	–	–	65000
Fixtures and equipment	34000	5000	29000
			94000
Current assets
Stock		26000
Debtors		28000
Bank		25500
Cash		50
Prepaid Insurance		50
		79600
Less current liabilities
Creditors	20000
Bank overdraft	1500
Outstanding salary	1500	23000
Working capital			56600
			150600
Less long-term liabilities
Loan-Riyadh bank			25000
			125600
Financed by:
Capital		120000
Add net profit		14000	134000
Less drawings			8400
			125600

Accounts rules

Concepts and conventions:

Concepts
Concepts are basically rules, which set down how the financial activities of a business are recorded.

Conventions
Conventions are regarded as the generally accepted methods by which the rules (concepts) are applied to given situations.

The main accounting rules:

Business entity
The business is treated as completely separate from the owner of that business.
The owner’s personal assets, the owner’s personal spending etc. do not appear in the accounting records of the business.

Going concern:
Applying this concept, the fixed assets of a business appear in the Balance Sheet at book value and stock appears at the lower of cost or net realizable value.

Duality:
The term double entry is used to describe how the dual aspect of all transactions is recorded.

Money measurement:
The accounts of a business only record the information which can be expressed in monetary terms.
There are many other aspects of a business which do not appear in the accounting records because they cannot be measured in terms of money. The value of a good manager, a loyal workforce and high staff morale are of great benefit to a business.

Consistency
Once a certain method is chosen it should be applied consistently from year to year.

Matching
Matching concept is applied on trading profit and loss account, on prepaid and on accrued.

Prudence
The concept of prudence is applied to provision for doubtful debts and on stock valuation

Capital and revenue expenditure and receipts
Capital expenditure is money spent by a business on the purchase of fixed assets.
Revenue expenditure is money spent on running a business on day to day basis.
A capital receipt occurs when a fixed asset is sold.
Revenue receipts are sales of other items of income such as rent received and discount received.

Stock valuation:
Applying the concept of prudence, stock must always be valued at the lower of cost or net realizable value.

Accruals and prepayments

The final accounts prepared up to this point have not really been true to life.
In practice, adjustments often have to be made to the accounting records at the end of the financial position of the business.

Accruals Expenses

An accrual is an amount due in an accounting period, which is unpaid at the end of that period.

Who to record and adjust such accounts?

Accrued expenses

Record the amount paid during the year on debit side of the expense account.
Record the amount accrued at the end of year on debit side with a sentence of BALANCE C/D of the account.
Less amount accrued at start of year

For example:

Hassan’s financial year ends on 31 December every year.

He rents an office at an annual rent of $3200, payable in four quarterly installments of $800.

During 2009, Hassan paid rent by cheque on 1 Jan, 1 April and 1 July. The rent due on 1 Oct remained unpaid on 31 December 2009.

Rent Account
2009 Jan 1 Bank	800	2009 Dec 31 profit and loss	3200
Apr 1 Bank	800
July 1 Bank	800
Dec 31 Balance c/d	800		——
	3200		3200
		2010 Jan 1 Balance b/d	800

Hassan’s financial year ends on 31 December every year.

He rents an office at an annual rent of $3200, payable in four quarterly installments of $800.

On 1 Jan 2010 Hassan rent account showed a credit balance of 800 for rent due on 1 Oct 2009. During 2010 Hassan paid rent by cheque as follows- $ 1600 on 2 Jan, $800 on 1 Apr, $800 on 1 July and $800 on 1 Oct.

Rent Account
2010 Jan 2 Bank	1600	2010 Jan 1 Balance b/d	800
Apr 1 Bank	800	Dec 31 profit and loss	3200
July 1 Bank	800
Oct 1 Bank	800
	4000		4000

Prepayments:

A prepayment is when a payment is paid in advance of the period to which it relates. If an expense is prepaid it means that an amount is paid during an accounting period for a benefit or service to be received in a future period.

The matching concept must be applied to ensure that only the expense for the particular period is entered in the profit and loss account.

Who to record and adjust such accounts?

Prepayments

Record the amount paid during the year on debit side of the expense account.
Record the amount prepaid at start of year at the end of year on debit side of the account.
Less amount prepaid at the end of year of year.

For example:

Ahmad’s financial year ends on 31 December.

On 1 Oct 2009 he purchased a new motor vehicle and paid one year’s motor vehicle insurance of $800 by cheque.

Write up the Motor vehicle insurance account in Ahmad ledger for the year ended at 31 Dec, 2009.

Motor vehicle insurance account
2009 Oct 1 Bank	800	2009 Dec 31 profit and loss	200
	800	Balance c/d	600
			800
2010 Jan 1 Balance b/d	600

On 1 Jan 2010, Ahmad Motor vehicle insurance account showed a debit balance of $ 600. On 1 oct 2010 he paid one year’s motor vehicle insurance of $ 840 by cheque.

Motor vehicle insurance account
2010 Balance b/d	600	2010 Dec 31 profit and loss	810
Oct 1 Bank	840	Balance c/d	630
	1440		1440
1 Jan 2010 Balance b/d	630

Depreciation and disposal of fixed assets

Depreciation is an estimate of the loss in value of a fixed asset over its expected working life. Most fixed assets lose value over time. The accounts of a business should show a fair view of the financial position so it is necessary to record this loss in value.

In the profit and loss account depreciation of fixed assets will appear with the other expenses and the net profit will be reduced.

Methods of calculating depreciation

Revaluation method of depreciation

On 1 Jan 2004 Ahmad purchased a machine for $12000. He decided to revalue the machine at the end of each financial year. On 31 December 2004 he valued the machine at $8500.

Cost of machine 1 Jan 2004	12000
Value of machine 31 December 2004	8500
Depreciation for the year	3500

Recording depreciation in the ledger

The asset account will always have a debit balance.
The provision for depreciation account will always have a credit balance.

Example:

Javeed’s financial year ends at 31 December.

On 1 Jan 2004 he purchased a machine for $12000. He estimates that he will keep the machine for 4 years and then sell it for $2000. He decided to use the straight line method of depreciation.

Make the necessary entries in Javeed’s ledger for each of the year ending 31 Dec. 2004, 2005, 2006 and 2007.

Disposal of fixed assets

When a fixed asset reaches the end of its useful life, or when it is no longer needed by the business, it will be sold. When fixed assets are purchased this is known as capital expenditure and the asset is recorded in a fixed asset account rather than the purchases account.

When fixed assets are sold this is known as a capital receipt.

How to record the disposal of fixed asset?

Record the fixed asset in the account at the debit side.
Record the provision for depreciation at the credit side of the account.
Open a disposal account.
1. Credit the fixed asset account
2. Debit disposal of fixed asset account
3. Debit provision for depreciation account
4. Credit disposal of fixed asset account
5. Credit P & L account with any loss on sale.
  Or Debit P & L account with any profit on sale.

Example:

Ahmad’s financial year ends on 31 December.

On 1 Jan 2004 he purchased a machine for $12000. On 1 Jan 2007 the provision for depreciation of machinery account showed a credit balance of $7500. Ahmad sold the machine on 2 Jan 2007 for $3900 cash.

Write up the following accounts

Machinery account
Provision for depreciation of machine account
Disposal for machinery account.

Bad debts and provision for doubtful debts

A bad debt is an amount owing to a business, which will not be paid by the debtor.

When it is decided that all possible means to obtain payment from the debtor have failed, the debt should be written off.

This means that the debtor’s account in the sales ledger is closed and the amount due is transferred to a bad debts account in the nominal ledger.

How to write off the account of a customer?

Record the credit sales at the debit side of the customer account.
Credit the debtor’s account
Debit the Bad Debts account
Credit the Bad debts account

Example

On 1 May 2000, Ahmad sold goods $240 on credit to Khalid. On 28 May 2000 khalid paid the account by cheque and purchased further goods, $200, on credit.

Ahmad wrote off the account of Khalid on 31 March 2001

On 20 Aug 2001 khalid sent a cheque to Ahmad for the amount he owed on 28 May 2000.

Ahmad wrote off debtors totaling $542 during the financial year ended 31 March 2002

Write up the following accounts

Khalid account
Bad debts account
Bad debts recovered account

Provision for doubtful debts

A provision for doubtful debts is an estimate of the amount that a business will lose in a financial year because of bad debts.
This is something referred to as a provision for bad debts.

Example:

During the financial year ends on 31 Oct 2003 he decided to create a provision for doubtful debts of 3%, who owed $17000 at that date.
During the financial year ends on 31 Oct 2004 he decided to create a provision for doubtful debts of 4%, who owed $20000 at that date. (increase)
During the financial year ends on 31 Oct 2005 he decided to create a provision for doubtful debts of 3%, who owed $19000 at that date. (decrease)

Provision for doubtful debts
2003		2003
Oct 31 Balance c/d	510	Oct 31 P & L	510
	510		510
		1 Nov Balance b/d	510
Oct 31 Balance c/d	800	2004 31 Oct P&L	290
	800		800
2005 31 Oct P & L	230	1 Nov Balance b/d	800
Balance c/d	570		—-
	800		800
		2005 1 Nov Balance b/d	570

Bank Reconciliation statements

The purpose of bank reconciliation is to explain any difference between the bank balance appearing in the cash book of a business and the balance appearing on the bank statement provided by the bank.
The bank statement must be compared with the bank account in the cash book. If the balance differ it is necessary to reconcile them, that is, explain why the differences have arisen.

Reasons for differences between cash book and bank statement

Items in the cash book but not in the bank statement
1. Cheques not yet presented
  Cheques that have been paid by the business and credited in the cash book, but which do not appear on the bank statement.
2. Amount not yet credited
  Cheques and other amounts which have been paid into the bank and debited in the cash book, which do not appear on the bank statement.
3. It is possible that there are errors in the cash book which do not appear on the bank statement.
  (The error of the cash book must be corrected in the cash book)
Items in the bank statement but not in the cash book
1. Standing orders and credit transfers: Amount received by the bank which has been paid directly into the business’s bank account.
2. Credit transfers, standing orders and direct debits: amount paid by the bank to other people.
3. Bank charges and bank interest: which the bank has taken from the businesses account to cover the costs of running the account and for any interest on loan and overdrafts the business may have.
4. Dishonored cheques: These are the cheques paid into the bank but which have been returned as the drawer of the cheque did not have sufficient funds to cover the cheque.
5. Bank errors:
Procedure for bank reconciliation:
- Compare the bank statement with the bank account in the cash book.
  (Remember to compare the debit of the bank account against the credit of the bank statement and place a tick (√) against those items which appear in both records.)
- Update the cash book: by entering any items which appear on the bank statement but which have not yet been entered in the bank account.
- Correct any errors in the cash book.
- Balance the cash book.
Prepare the bank reconciliation statement.
- Start with the balance shown on the bank statement.
- Add on any items that have been debited in the cash book but not yet credited on the bank statement.
- Deduct any items that have been credited in the ca book but nit ye debited on the bank statement.
- Make any necessary adjustments for bank errors.
- The final balance of bank reconciliation statement should be equal to the updated cashbook.

Take the example of your book on page 136-138

Lay out of bank reconciliation:

Balance as per bank statement:			4182
Add amount not yet credited	Ahmed and co	110
	Sales	874	984
			5166
Less cheques not yet presented:	insurance	95
	G Bierling	416	511
Balance as per cash book			4655

(If bank balance is not given in the question then we will use updated cash book balance and we will use the following lay out.)

Balance as per cah book:			4655
Less: amount not yet credited	Ahmed and co	110
	Sales	874	984
			3671
Add: cheques not yet presented:	insurance	95
	G Bierling	416	511
Balance as per bank statement			4182

(Complete the exercises on pages 141-144)

Journal Entries and Correction of Errors

The journal is a book of prime entry, but it is not part of the double entry system. It is a journal, noting the entries to be made in the ledger.

Opening journal entries:

These are the entries necessary to open the books when a business is first started, or when an existing business first to keep proper accounting records.

The assets are listed in the debit column, and the liabilities in the credit column, and the deference, the capital is inserted as the balance figure.

Example: Ahmed has been in the business for two years, but has not kept any accounting records. On 1 feb 2002, he provided the following information:

Assets: machinery $12000, motor vehicle $3200, stock $1900, bank $2660, debtors $490

Liabilities: creditors $750

Prepare an opening journal entry for Ahmad on 1Feb 2002

Show your working below.

Correction of errors: when the errors are discovered, they should be corrected by a journal entry. Look at the book example on pages 148-158

Control accounts

Control accounts are sometimes known as total accounts. A control account acts as a summary of the ledger which it controls.

1 Sales ledger control accounts.

A sales ledger control account is sometimes known as a total debtors account. The control account is balanced at the end of the period.
If the balance on the control account differs from the total of the individual debtor’s balances an error must have occurred, either in the sales ledger or within the control account.
It is essential that the information required to prepare a sales ledger control account is obtained from books of prime entry, not the sales ledger account.
Items appearing in a sales ledger control account

Sales ledger account
Balance b/d	10230	sales returns	1380
Sales	71500	bank	68800
Dishonour cheques	870	cash	1050
Cash refunded to debtor	30	Discount allowed	1440
		Bad debts	160
		Balance c/d	9800
	82630		82630
Balance b/d	9800

Purchase ledger control accounts

A purchase ledger control account is sometimes known as a total creditors account. At the end of the period the balance on the purchase ledger control account should agree with the total of the balances of all the individual accounts in the purchase ledger.
If the balance on the control account differs from the total of the individual creditor’s balances there must be an error, either in the purchase ledger or in the control account.

Debit entries		Credit entries
Purchase returns		Balance b/d
Cash and cheques paid		purchases on credit
Discount received		cash refunded by creditors
Balance c/d
	—-		—-
	—-		—-
		Balance b/d

Advantages of control accounts

Control accounts can help in locating errors by providing the arithmetical accuracy of the ledgers which they control.
Fraud is made more difficult by the use of control accounts.
control accounts also provide a summary of the transactions affecting the debtors and creditors for the financial period.

Incomplete records

Small businesses do not maintain a full set of double entry record. As a result trial balances can’t be produced and complete set of final accounts can’t be prepared without further analysis of the records that do exist.

Where the only records available are the assets and liabilities at the beginning of the year and at the end of the year.
It is not possible to prepare a Trading and Profit and Loss Account.

The information of liabilities and assets are listed in a Statement of affairs. This would have been called a Balance sheet if it had been drawn up from double entry records.

The only way the profit for the year can be found is by comparing the capital shown in the opening statement of Affairs with the capital shown in the closing statement of Affairs. The basic formula is –

Closing capital – opening capital drawings – capital introduced = profit

statement of affairs as at 1 January 2001

Fixed assets
Machinery at cost			9500
Current asset
Stock	1050
Debtors	630
Prepayments	120
Bank	2700	4500
Less current liabilities
Creditor	970
Accruals	30	1000	3500
Less long term liability			13000
Abc banks			5000
Financed by			8000
Capital			8000

Statement of affairs as at 31 December 2001

Fixed assets	$	$	$
Equipment	7000	700	6300
Machinery	2500	250	2250
Motor vehicle	1800	–	1800
			10350
Current assets
Stock	1290
Debtors	660
Prepayments	40	1990
Less current liabilities
Creditors	860
Accruals	20
Bank OD	120	1000
Working capital			990
			11340
Less long term liability
Loan			2000
			9340
Financed by
Capital			9340

Calculation of profit for the year ended 31 December 2001

Capital at 31 December 2001	9340
Less capital at 1 January 2001	8000
	1340
Add drawings during the year	1040
	2380
Less capital introduced	1800
Net profit	580

A business may be able to provide other information, in addition to the assets and liabilities at the beginning and end of the year. Where details of money paid and received are also available, it is possible o calculate the sales, purchases and expenses and so prepare a Trading and profit and loss account.

Calculation for credit sales

Receipts from debtors			41100
Less debtors opening balance			3330
			37770
Add debtors ending balance			3660
Credit sales for the year			41430

Calculation for total sales of the year

Credit sales			41430
Case sales			2570
Total sales			44000

Calculation for credit purchase

Payments to creditors			32320
Less creditors opening balance			2900
			29420
Add creditors ending balance			3080
Credit purchase for the year			32500

Calculation for total sales for the year

Credit purchase			32500
Cash purchase			11100
Total purchase			33600

Calculation for total debtors account

Opening balance of debtors		3330
Add credit sales		42440
		45770
Less bank	41100
Discount allowed	1010	42110
Total debtors account		33360

Calculation for total creditors account

Opening balance of creditors		2900
Add credit purchase		34660
		37560
Less bank	32320
Discount received	2160	34480
Total creditors account		3080

Mark up, margin, and stock turnover

It is sometimes necessary to use percentages to calculate missing information in incomplete records.

We use mark up and margin to calculate Gross Profit.

If total sales are given we apply margin on sales to calculate gross profit.
If total cost of sales is given we apply mark up to calculate gross profit

How to change margin into mark up, and mark up into margin?

Margin		Mark up
½	1/1+2	⅓
Mark up		Margin
⅓	1/1-3	½

Rate of stock turnover

This is the number of times a business replaces its stock in a given period.

The formula is:

Accounts of clubs and societies

Introduction:

The main aim of a non-trading organization is to provide facilities and services for its members.
A non-trading organization only maintains a cash book.
At the end of financial year, the accountant prepares a summary of cash book; know as Receipts and Payments Account.
If there is some form of regular trading, such as a snack bar, sports shop, etc, a Trading Account may be prepared.
A non-trading organization prepares an Income and Expenditure Account instead of a profit and loss account.
A non-trading organization prepares a Balance sheet in the same way as a trading business, but capital is replaced by Accumulated Fund.

1. Receipts and payments account

Any money received during the period is debited and any money paid during the period is credited. The account is then balanced in the usual way. The balance is carried down and becomes the opening balance for the next financial period.

Receipts and payments account
Dr.		Cr.
Balance b/d	$$$	Purchase	$$$
Subscriptions	$$$	Equipment	$$$
Receipts from café	$$$	Wages	$$$
Ticket sales for play	$$$	Balance C/D	$$$
	—-		—-
	—-		—-
Balance b/d	$$$

2. Trading account

Sales		$$$
Less cost of sales
Opening stock	$$$
Purchases	$$$
	$$$
Less closing stock	$$$
	$$$
Wages of assistant	$$$	$$$
Profit on café		$$$

3. Income and expenditure account

This is similar to the profit and loss account prepared for a business. It lists all the expenses of the organization and all the gains.
Where the expenses are lower than the gain, the difference is referred to as Surplus, where the expenses are more than the gain; the difference is referred to as Deficit.

(I f opening balance of insurance is given then it must be added and ending must be subtracted)

(If opening balance of outstanding or accrual is given then it must be subtracted and ending must be added)

Income and expenditure account

Income:
Subscriptions (receipt + unpaid or owed – paid in advance)			$$$$
Profit on café			$$$$
Annual play	tickets	$$$$
	Less expenses	$$$$	$$$$
			$$$$
Expenditure:
Wages	(wages + wages unpaid or accrual)	$$$$
Insurance	(insurance – prepaid)	$$$$
Administration expenses		$$$$
Depreciation		$$$$	$$$$
Surplus / deficit for the year			$$$$

Club and societies

Balance sheet

Fixed assets	cost	pro. Depreciation	NBV
Premises	$$$$	–	$$$$
Equipment	$$$$	$$$$	$$$$
			$$$$
Current assets
Stock in café		$$$$
Subscription owing or unpaid or accrual		$$$$
Prepayments		$$$$
Bank		$$$$
(Ending balance of receipt and payment account)		$$$$
Less current liabilities
Creditors	$$$$
Subscription paid in advance	$$$$
Accrual expense	$$$$	$$$$	$$$$
(wages, electricity, rent, etc.)			$$$$
Less long term liability
Loan			$$$$
			5000
Financed by:
Accumulated fund			$$$$
Add surplus for the year			$$$$
			5000

If the club makes a loss then it must be subtracted from accumulated fund.

For subscription account look at the example on page 193 of your book

Partnership accounts

A partnership is a business in which two or more people work together as owners with a view to make profits. Normally there cannot be more than twenty partners.

Partnership agreement:

It is usual for an agreement to be drawn up when a partnership is formed to eliminate any confusion and misunderstanding which may arise if no written agreement is prepared.

Following are the contents of a partnership agreement:

the amount of capital to be invested by each partner
how the profits and losses to be shared between the partners
interest on partners’ capital
salaries are to be paid to the partners
interest on partners’ drawings
interest on partners’ loan

Profit and loss appropriation account:

A partnership business draws up an appropriation account to show how the net profit is shared out between partners.

Steps to make appropriation account

take the net profit
add the interest charged on drawing s
subtract: interest on capital, salaries and share of profit and loss according to the agreement

Profit and loss appropriation account

Net profit			9220
Add interest on drawings
	Ann	160
	Joe	120	280
			9500
Less interest on capital
	Ann	800
	Joe	1200	2000
			7500
Partner’s salary	Ann		5000
			2500
Shares of profit	Ann	1000
	Joe	1500	2500

Partners’ ledger accounts

Ann Current account
DR		CR
Drawings	4000	Balance b/d	500
Interest on drawings	160	interest on capital	800
Balance c/d	3140	salary	5000
		Profit share	1000
	7300		7300
		Balance b/d	3140

How to show current accounts of partners in Balance sheet?

Credit balance of partner’s current account is added to capital in the balance sheet.
Debit balance of partner’s current account is subtracted from the capital in the balance sheet
For example: Ann current account shows a Dr. balance of 3140 and Joe current account shows Cr. Balance of 220.

Extraction of balance sheet

Financed by:
	Ann	Joe	total
Capital	8000	12000
Current account	3140	(220)
	11140	11780	22920

How to write off the goodwill account? And how to record goodwill in the capital accounts:

Write the goodwill on the debit side of the account using old ratio.
And write the goodwill on the credit side of account using new ratio.

Accounts of Manufacturing

Manufacturing account shows how much manufacturing cost the business to make the goods produced in the financial year. There are four main elements of cost which make up the cost of manufacturing

Direct cost
Direct labor
Direct expenses
Factory overheads (indirect expenses)

Manufacturing account for the year ended 31 December 2009

Cost of material consumed	$	$
Opening stock of raw material	4500
Purchases of raw material	52000
Carriage on purchases	1050
	57550
Less closing stock of raw material	4950	57600
Direct wages		49800
Prime cost		102400
Factory overheads
Indirect wages	32600
Light and power	2750
General expenses	4100
Machinery repairs	1950
Depreciation of machinery	5000	46400
		148800
Add opening stock of raw material in progress		2100
		150900
Less closing stock of work in progress		1900
Production cost of goods completed		149000

Trading accounts of manufacturing businesses

	$	$
Sales		181000
Less cost goods sold
Opening stock of finished goods	5700
Production cost of goods completed	149000
Purchases of finished goods	2500
	157200
Less closing stock of finished goods	6200	151000
Gross profit		30000
Less expenses
Office expense	2000
Office equipment depreciation	1000	3000
Net profit		27000

Balance sheet of manufacturing businesses

Extraction of balance sheet

Current assets
Stock of raw material	4950
Stock of work in progress	1900
Stock of finished goods	6200	13050

Limited Company Accounts

A minimum of two members is necessary to form a limited company, but there is no maximum. The capital of a company is divided into units known as shares which can be any monetary amount.

The members (shareholders) of the company are only liable for the debts of the company up to the amount they agree to pay for their shares.

There are two types of limited company- Public limited company and private limited company.

Public limited company offers its shares to the public and a private limited company usually a smaller company and is not allowed to offer its shares to the public.

Share capital:

When a limited company is first formed the amount of its share capital must be stated. This is known as the authorized share capital
Authorized share capital is the maximum amount of share capital the company is allowed to issue.
The total amount a company has requested from the shareholders is known as the called up capital.
The term paid up capital refers to that part of called up capital for which a company has actually received cash from its shareholders.

Types of shares:

The authorized share capital is divided into different types of shares. The most common ones are preference shares and ordinary shares.
Preference shares:
1. They received a fixed rate of dividend which is payable before any dividend is payable to the ordinary shareholders.
2. The dividend is same every year.
3. If a company is wound up any money left after paying outside liabilities is used to pay back the preference shareholders before anything is returned to the ordinary shareholders.
4. Preference shareholders are not entitled to vote at shareholders meetings.
Ordinary shareholders:
1. The dividend is not a fixed amount, but varies according to the profits of the business.
2. If the trading results are poor the ordinary shareholders may received no dividend at all.
3. Ordinary shareholders are entitled to vote at shareholders meetings on the basis of one vote per share.
Debentures:
1. A company may also obtain funds from debentures, which are long term loans.
2. Debentures carry a fixed rate of interest, which is payable whether or not the company makes a profit.
3. Debenture holders are not the member of the company.

Profit and loss appropriation account

Example:

Anand Ltd was formed on 1 July 2003 with an authorized capital of $700,000 divided into 400,000 5% preference shares of $1 each and 600,000 ordinary shares of $0.50 each.
On 30 June 2006 half of the preference shares and all of the ordinary shares had been issued and were fully paid.
The net profit for the year ended 30 june 2006 was $58000. On that date the balance brought forward on the profit and loss appropriation account amounted to $21000.
Half of the preference share dividend was paid on 31 December 2005. On 30 June 2006 the directors recommended the transfer of $8000 to general reserve, the payment of the remaining preference dividend, and the payment of an ordinary share dividend of %8.

Prepare the profit and loss appropriation account for the year ended 30 June 2006

	$	$	$
Net profit for the year			58000
Less Transfer to general reserve			8000
			50000
Dividends- preference paid		5000
Proposed – preference shares		5000
Ordinary shares		24000	34000
Retained profit for the year			16000
Retained profit b/d			21000
Retained profit carried forward			37000

Prepare an extract from the balance sheet of Anand Ltd at 30 June 2006 showing the shareholders’ funds.

Share capital	Authorized	Issued
5% preference share of $1 each	400,000	200,000
Ordinary shares of $0.50	300,000	300,000
	700,000	500,000
Reserves
General reserve	34000
Profit and loss account	37000	71000
Share holders’ funds		571000

Analysis and interpretation

Profitability ratios

Return on capital employed (ROCE)

It shows the profit earned for every $100 of capital employed.

Gross profit as a percentage of sales

This measures the gross profit for every $100 of sales. It indicates how profitable the sales were.
Any significant reduction in gross profit possibly caused by:
1. Selling goods at cut prices
2. Holding seasonal sales
3. Offering trade discounts to customers in bulk
4. Not passing on increased costs to customers.
The gross profit percentage could be increased by:
1. Looking for cheaper supplies
2. Increasing selling prices
3. Increasing advertising and sales promotions
4. Changing the proportions of the different types of goods sold

Profitability ratios:

Gross profit percentage: Gross profit ÷ sales × 100

Net profit percentage: net profit ÷ sales × 100

Liquidity ratios:

Formula: Current assets: current liabilities

This is a measure of the business’s ability to meet existing current liabilities as the fall due.
Anything between 1.5:1 and 2:1 is generally be regarded as satisfactory.
A ratio of over 2:1 may imply poor management of current assets.

Consequences of not having enough working capital include:

Problems in meeting debts as they fall due
Inability to take advantage of cash discounts
Difficulties in obtaining further supplies
Inability to take advantage of business opportunities as they arise

Ways of improving the working capital include:

Introduction of further capital
Obtaining long term loans
Reducing owner’s drawings
Selling surplus fixed assets

Quick ratio:

Current assets – stock: current liabilities

A ratio of 1:1 is usually regarded as satisfactory. This indicates that liquid assets match the current liabilities.
With a ratio of 1:1 the current liabilities can be paid without the need to sell stock immediately and without selling fixed assets.
A ratio more than 1:1 may indicate poor management of liquid assets.

Collection period for debtors

Formula: debtors ÷ credit sales × 365 days (for answer in days)

Debtors ÷ credit sales × 52 weeks (for answer in weeks)

How to improve collection period for debtors?

Offer cash discount for early settlement of debts
Charge interest on overdue debts
Refuse further supplies until the outstanding balance is paid

Payment period for creditors:

Formula: Creditors ÷ credit purchase × 365 days (for answer in days)

Creditors ÷ credit purchase × 365 days (for answer in weeks)

Taking extended credit benefits the liquidity position as the business is able to use the money for other purposes for a longer period.
The drawbacks to delays in paying creditors are the loss of any cash discounts which may be available, and the damage to the relationship with the suppliers.