🇺🇸 AP United States History - Unit 3
Conflict and American Independence, 1754–1800
Period 3: From imperial crisis through revolution to the formation of a new nation and republic
3.0 Unit Overview: Conflict & American Independence (1754-1800)
Unit 3 Essential Question:
How did imperial competition and the ideas of the Enlightenment lead to revolution, independence, and the creation of a new constitutional republic?
📊 Key Concepts Overview
Key Concept 3.1:
British attempts to assert tighter control over its North American colonies and the colonial resolve to pursue self-government led to a colonial independence movement and the Revolutionary War.
Key Concept 3.2:
The American Revolution's democratic and republican ideals inspired new experiments with different forms of government.
Key Concept 3.3:
Migration within North America and competition over resources, boundaries, and trade intensified conflicts among peoples and nations.
⏰ Chronological Framework
1754-1763: French and Indian War reshapes North American balance of power
1763-1775: Imperial Crisis - British taxation and colonial resistance
1775-1783: Revolutionary War and Declaration of Independence
1781-1789: Articles of Confederation and Constitutional Convention
1789-1800: Early Republic under the Constitution
🎯 Major Themes
- Imperial Crisis: Growing tensions between Britain and its American colonies
- Enlightenment Ideas: Natural rights, social contract theory, and republicanism
- Revolutionary War: Military conflict and path to independence
- Constitutional Development: From Articles to Constitution
- Political Parties: Federalists vs. Democratic-Republicans
- National Identity: Creating American political and cultural identity
3.1 Context: The Revolutionary Period
Learning Objective:
Explain the context in which the resistance to imperial control and the independence movement developed from 1754 to 1800.
🌍 Global Context
The American Revolution occurred during the Age of Enlightenment and within the broader context of European imperial competition. This period saw major shifts in political philosophy, economic theory, and international relations.
European Imperial Competition:
- France vs. Britain: Global struggle for empire in North America, Caribbean, and India
- Spain: Maintaining control over vast American territories
- Trade rivalries: Competition for lucrative colonial markets
- Military conflicts: Series of wars involving European powers
💡 Intellectual Context: The Enlightenment
Enlightenment Ideas Influencing America:
- Natural Rights (John Locke): Life, liberty, and property are inherent human rights
- Social Contract Theory: Government derives authority from consent of the governed
- Separation of Powers (Montesquieu): Division of government power prevents tyranny
- Popular Sovereignty: Ultimate political authority rests with the people
- Republicanism: Government should serve the public good, not private interests
📚 Colonial Intellectual Development
By 1754, American colonists had developed sophisticated political ideas influenced by:
- British constitutional tradition: Rights of Englishmen, representative government
- Colonial experience: Self-governance through assemblies and town meetings
- Religious thought: Protestant emphasis on individual conscience and covenant theology
- Economic interests: Mercantile capitalism and desire for free trade
🏛️ Political and Social Tensions
Sources of Colonial Discontent:
- British attempts to centralize imperial control
- Taxation without colonial representation in Parliament
- Restrictions on westward expansion (Proclamation of 1763)
- Enforcement of trade regulations (Navigation Acts)
- Presence of British military forces in peacetime
Click to understand the deeper causes of revolution! 🤔
3.2 The Seven Years' War (The French and Indian War)
Learning Objective:
Explain the causes and effects of the Seven Years' War (the French and Indian War).
⚔️ Causes of the Conflict
Competing Claims in the Ohio Valley:
- French interests: Fur trading, connecting Canada to Louisiana
- British interests: Land speculation and westward expansion
- Native American concerns: Maintaining independence and traditional lands
- Strategic importance: Control of lucrative fur trade and western territories
📅 Key Events and Timeline
1754 - Fort Necessity: Young George Washington surrenders to French forces after attacking a French patrol, marking the beginning of hostilities.
1754 - Albany Congress: Benjamin Franklin proposes the Albany Plan of Union to coordinate colonial defense, but colonies reject it as too centralized.
1755 - Braddock's Defeat: British General Edward Braddock's forces suffer devastating defeat near Fort Duquesne, demonstrating the effectiveness of French and Native American guerrilla tactics.
1757 - William Pitt becomes British war minister: Shifts strategy to focus on American theater, provides more resources to colonial war effort.
1759 - Battle of Quebec: British forces under General James Wolfe defeat French under Marquis de Montcalm on the Plains of Abraham, effectively ending French control of Canada.
1763 - Treaty of Paris: Formally ends the war; France cedes Canada and all territory east of Mississippi River to Britain, Louisiana to Spain.
🎯 Major Consequences
Territorial Changes:
- British gains: Canada, Florida, all French territory east of Mississippi River
- Spanish gains: Louisiana Territory (from France)
- French losses: All North American territory except small Caribbean islands
- Native American losses: Loss of French ally, increased British pressure on tribal lands
Economic and Political Consequences:
- British war debt: Doubled national debt, leading to new taxation policies
- Colonial military experience: Americans gained valuable military knowledge and confidence
- British military presence: Permanent garrisons established in America
- Proclamation of 1763: Prohibited colonial settlement west of Appalachian Mountains
🏞️ Pontiac's Rebellion (1763)
Native American Resistance:
Led by Ottawa chief Pontiac, Native Americans launched coordinated attacks on British frontier posts. The rebellion was sparked by:
- British refusal to give gifts as French had done
- British occupation of former French forts
- Fear of increased colonial settlement in Ohio Valley
- British policies that showed less respect for Native sovereignty
Outcome:
The rebellion influenced British decision to issue the Proclamation of 1763, attempting to prevent further conflicts by limiting colonial expansion.
Click to learn about the ironic consequences of British victory! 🏆
3.3 Taxation without Representation
Learning Objective:
Explain how British policies and responses to colonial concerns led to the writing of the Declaration of Independence.
💸 British Revenue Policies
After the expensive Seven Years' War, Britain faced enormous debt and sought to make American colonies contribute to the cost of their defense and administration.
Sugar Act (1764):
- Lowered tax on molasses but strengthened enforcement
- Created admiralty courts to try smugglers without juries
- First law passed specifically to raise revenue (not regulate trade)
- Colonial response: Economic protests and calls for representation
Stamp Act (1765):
- Required tax stamps on all printed materials (newspapers, legal documents, playing cards)
- First direct internal tax imposed on colonies
- Affected literate colonists who could organize resistance
- Colonial response: Stamp Act Congress, boycotts, Sons of Liberty formed
- Outcome: Repealed in 1766 due to colonial pressure and British merchant losses
Townshend Acts (1767):
- Duties on imported goods (tea, glass, lead, paint, paper)
- Revenue used to pay colonial governors and judges (reducing colonial control)
- Strengthened customs enforcement
- Colonial response: Renewed boycotts, "Letters from a Farmer" by John Dickinson
- Outcome: Mostly repealed in 1770, except tea duty
☕ The Tea Crisis
Tea Act (1773):
- Granted British East India Company monopoly on tea sales in America
- Undercut colonial tea merchants and smugglers
- Maintained Townshend duty on tea
- Seen as both economic and political threat
Boston Tea Party (December 16, 1773):
- Sons of Liberty, disguised as Native Americans, dumped 342 chests of tea into Boston Harbor
- Organized by Samuel Adams and Boston Committee of Correspondence
- Destroyed tea worth £10,000 (about $1 million today)
- Direct challenge to British authority
🚫 The Coercive Acts (Intolerable Acts) - 1774
British Response to Boston Tea Party:
- Boston Port Act: Closed Boston Harbor until tea was paid for
- Massachusetts Government Act: Revoked Massachusetts charter, appointed royal governor
- Administration of Justice Act: Allowed British officials to be tried in England
- Quartering Act: Required colonists to house British soldiers
- Quebec Act: Extended Quebec's boundaries, established Catholicism
Colonial Response:
The Coercive Acts backfired, uniting the colonies in opposition and leading to the First Continental Congress (1774).
🏛️ Colonial Political Theory
"No Taxation Without Representation":
Colonists argued that as British subjects, they could not be taxed by Parliament where they had no representation. Key arguments:
- Constitutional rights: British subjects could only be taxed by their representatives
- Virtual representation rejected: Colonists denied Parliament's claim to represent all British subjects
- Economic arguments: Taxes hurt colonial trade and prosperity
- Precedent concerns: If Parliament could tax without representation, no limits on its power
📢 Methods of Colonial Resistance
- Economic boycotts: Non-importation agreements to pressure British merchants
- Political organization: Committees of Correspondence linked colonial resistance
- Popular protests: Demonstrations, tar and feathering of tax collectors
- Intellectual arguments: Pamphlets and essays defending colonial rights
- Legal challenges: Colonial assemblies passed resolutions against British policies
Click to understand the escalating crisis! 📈
3.4 Philosophical Foundations of the American Revolution
Learning Objective:
Explain the ideological, military, and diplomatic aspects of the American Revolution.
📜 The Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776)
Thomas Jefferson's Philosophical Framework:
Natural Rights Theory:
- "All men are created equal" - Fundamental human equality
- "Endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights" - Rights come from God, not government
- "Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness" - Core natural rights (Jefferson modified Locke's "property")
Social Contract Theory:
- "Governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed" - Popular sovereignty
- Right of Revolution: When government violates natural rights, people may alter or abolish it
- List of Grievances: 27 specific complaints against King George III
💭 Key Enlightenment Influences
John Locke (1632-1704):
- Two Treatises of Government: Natural rights, social contract, right of revolution
- Tabula rasa: People are not born to be ruled by kings
- Property rights: Government exists to protect life, liberty, and property
Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755):
- The Spirit of Laws: Separation of powers prevents tyranny
- Checks and balances: Each branch of government limits the others
- Federalism: Division of power between national and local governments
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778):
- The Social Contract: "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains"
- General will: Government should reflect the will of the people
- Popular sovereignty: Ultimate political authority rests with the people
🏛️ Republican Ideology
Classical Republicanism:
Americans drew on both ancient and modern sources for republican ideas:
- Roman Republic: Model of representative government and civic virtue
- English Commonwealth: Limiting monarchical power
- Civic virtue: Citizens must be willing to sacrifice for the public good
- Mixed government: Balancing different social classes and interests
- Rule of law: Government by laws, not arbitrary will of rulers
📚 Key Revolutionary Documents and Ideas
Common Sense (1776) by Thomas Paine: Argued for independence and republicanism in plain language. Sold 500,000 copies, convincing many colonists to support independence.
Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania (1767-1768) by John Dickinson: Argued against Townshend Acts, distinguishing between external and internal taxes.
The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved (1764) by James Otis: Early argument against taxation without representation.
⚖️ Contradictions and Limitations
Revolutionary Contradictions:
- Slavery: Declaration proclaimed equality while slavery continued
- Women's rights: "All men are created equal" excluded women from political participation
- Native Americans: Called "merciless Indian savages" in Declaration
- Property requirements: Voting still limited to white male property owners
Click to explore revolutionary principles and their lasting impact! 📜
3.5 The American Revolution
Learning Objective:
Explain the ideological, military, and diplomatic aspects of the American Revolution.
⚔️ From Resistance to Revolution
Lexington and Concord (April 19, 1775):
- British objective: Seize colonial arms stored in Concord
- "Shot heard round the world": First armed conflict of the Revolution
- Colonial response: Militia from across New England surrounded Boston
- Significance: Point of no return; armed conflict had begun
Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775):
- Colonial strategy: Fortified Breed's Hill overlooking Boston Harbor
- "Don't fire until you see the whites of their eyes" - Conserving ammunition
- British victory: Captured the hill but suffered heavy casualties (1,000+ vs. 400 colonial)
- Significance: Proved colonial forces could inflict serious damage on British army
🎖️ Key Military Leaders
American Leaders:
- George Washington: Commander-in-Chief of Continental Army, strategic leadership
- Nathanael Greene: Southern theater commander, master of guerrilla tactics
- Benedict Arnold: Skilled general who later defected to British side
- Marquis de Lafayette: Young French volunteer who became Washington's surrogate son
British Leaders:
- General William Howe: Commander-in-Chief 1775-1778, cautious approach
- General John Burgoyne: Led failed Saratoga campaign
- General Henry Clinton: Later commander, focus on Southern strategy
- General Cornwallis: Southern theater commander, surrendered at Yorktown
🗺️ Major Campaigns and Turning Points
1776-1777 - New York Campaign: Washington's strategic retreat across New Jersey after losing New York City. Victories at Trenton and Princeton boosted morale and saved the Revolution.
Saratoga Campaign (1777):
- British strategy: Three-pronged attack to isolate New England
- Burgoyne's advance: Slow progress south from Canada with heavy baggage train
- American victory: Surrounded and forced Burgoyne to surrender 5,700 troops
- Diplomatic impact: Convinced France to formally ally with America
Valley Forge (Winter 1777-1778): Continental Army's darkest hour but also transformation. Baron von Steuben trained troops in European military tactics, creating a professional army.
Southern Campaign (1778-1781):
- British strategy: Win back Southern colonies with Loyalist support
- Initial success: Captured Savannah (1778) and Charleston (1780)
- Guerrilla warfare: Francis Marion ("Swamp Fox") and others used hit-and-run tactics
- Turning point: Daniel Morgan's victory at Cowpens (1781)
Yorktown (October 1781):
- Cornwallis trapped: British army cornered on Virginia peninsula
- Franco-American cooperation: Washington's army and Rochambeau's French forces
- French naval support: Admiral de Grasse's fleet prevented British escape by sea
- British surrender: 7,000 troops surrendered, effectively ending the war
🌍 International Dimensions
French Alliance (1778):
- Motivation: Revenge against Britain for Seven Years' War losses
- Military support: Navy, troops, supplies, and training
- Financial aid: Loans and subsidies crucial to American war effort
- Global conflict: War spread to Europe, Caribbean, and India
Other International Support:
- Spain: Provided financial aid and supplies, opened second front in South
- Netherlands: Loans and naval support
- Prussia and Russia: Diplomatic support through League of Armed Neutrality
🏠 Home Front and Social Impact
- Loyalists: 20-30% of population remained loyal to Britain; many fled to Canada
- Women's roles: Managed farms and businesses, some joined army as nurses or spies
- African Americans: Both sides promised freedom; many fought for British
- Native Americans: Most sided with British as they feared American expansion
- Economic challenges: Inflation, supply shortages, financing the war
Click to understand American revolutionary strategy! 🎯
3.6 The Influence of Revolutionary Ideals
Learning Objective:
Explain the various ways the American Revolution affected society.
🏛️ Political Changes
New State Constitutions:
- Written constitutions: Fundamental law superior to ordinary legislation
- Bills of rights: Protected individual liberties from government interference
- Separation of powers: Executive, legislative, and judicial branches
- Popular sovereignty: Government derives power from the people
- Expanded suffrage: Some states reduced property requirements for voting
⚖️ Social Transformations
Challenges to Social Hierarchy:
- Aristocracy weakened: Loyalist elites fled; republican ideals challenged inherited privilege
- Primogeniture and entail abolished: Land could be divided among all children
- Titles of nobility banned: Constitutional prohibition on aristocratic titles
- Social mobility increased: Revolution rewarded merit over birth
🙏 Religious Changes
Separation of Church and State:
- Disestablishment: End of state-supported churches in most states
- Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom (1786): Jefferson's law guaranteeing religious freedom
- Religious diversity: Growth of Baptist, Methodist, and other denominations
- Denominational competition: Churches had to compete for members
👩 Women and the Revolution
"Republican Motherhood":
- New role: Women responsible for raising virtuous republican citizens
- Educational opportunities: Increased access to education to fulfill mothering role
- Political awareness: Greater involvement in political discussions
- Economic roles: Managed businesses and farms during war
Notable Women:
- Abigail Adams: "Remember the ladies" - advocated for women's rights
- Mercy Otis Warren: Political writer and historian
- Judith Sargent Murray: Early advocate for women's equality
⛓️ Slavery and the Revolution
The Slavery Paradox:
- Contradiction: Fighting for liberty while maintaining slavery
- Northern emancipation: Gradual abolition laws in Northern states
- Manumission increase: Some slaveholders freed enslaved people
- Southern entrenchment: Revolution reinforced slavery in plantation regions
African American Responses:
- Military service: 5,000 African Americans served in Continental Army
- Freedom suits: Legal challenges to slavery based on revolutionary principles
- British promises: Lord Dunmore's Proclamation promised freedom for joining British
- Free black communities: Growth of free black populations in cities
🏞️ Native Americans and the Revolution
Impact on Native Peoples:
- Divided loyalties: Most tribes allied with British as lesser threat
- Territorial losses: American victory meant increased pressure on Native lands
- Treaty negotiations: New United States claimed sovereignty over tribal territories
- Continuing conflicts: Revolution set stage for decades of Indian wars
💰 Economic Changes
- Confiscated property: Loyalist lands redistributed to Patriots
- Debt and inflation: War debt and paper money caused economic instability
- Trade disruption: Loss of British markets, need for new trading partners
- Economic independence: Push for domestic manufacturing and self-sufficiency
Click to explore the revolutionary legacy! 🌍
3.7 The Articles of Confederation
Learning Objective:
Explain how different forms of government developed and changed as a result of the Revolutionary Period.
📜 Creating the First National Government
Articles of Confederation (1777-1781):
America's first constitution created a "firm league of friendship" among the states rather than a strong national government. Drafted during the Revolution, it reflected colonial fears of centralized authority.
💪 Strengths of the Articles
What the Articles Did Well:
- Won the Revolutionary War: Provided coordination for military effort
- Negotiated Treaty of Paris (1783): Secured independence and favorable terms
- Northwest Ordinance (1787): Created system for western territorial expansion
- Established precedents: National government, interstate relations
- Preserved state sovereignty: Protected states' rights and local control
🚫 Critical Weaknesses
Structural Problems:
- No executive branch: No president to enforce laws
- No national judiciary: No federal courts to settle disputes
- Unicameral legislature: One house with equal state representation
- Amendment difficulty: Required unanimous consent of all 13 states
- No national supremacy: State law could override national law
Financial Problems:
- No taxation power: Congress could only request money from states
- No currency control: States printed their own money, causing confusion
- War debt crisis: $40 million debt with no way to pay
- Trade regulation: No power to regulate interstate or foreign commerce
📊 Specific Crises Under the Articles
Economic Depression (1780s): Post-war economic downturn, debt problems, paper money inflation, foreclosures on farms and businesses.
Interstate Disputes: Trade wars between states, conflicting territorial claims, different currencies and regulations hindered commerce.
Shays' Rebellion (1786-1787):
- Cause: Massachusetts farmers couldn't pay debts due to hard currency requirements
- Leader: Daniel Shays, Revolutionary War veteran
- Action: Armed farmers prevented foreclosure proceedings
- Government response: Massachusetts militia suppressed rebellion
- Significance: Showed national government's weakness, spurred Constitutional Convention
🌍 Foreign Policy Challenges
- British violations: Failed to evacuate frontier posts, restricted American trade
- Spanish territorial disputes: Conflicts over Mississippi River navigation and western boundaries
- Barbary Pirates: North African states demanded tribute for safe passage
- Trade problems: No unified policy for foreign commerce
🏆 The Northwest Ordinance (1787)
The Articles' Greatest Achievement:
- Territorial governance: System for organizing western territories
- Path to statehood: Territories could become equal states when population reached 60,000
- Rights protection: Guaranteed civil liberties in territories
- Slavery prohibition: Banned slavery north of Ohio River
- Education provision: Required public education in new territories
- Peaceful expansion: Created precedent for continental growth
Click to understand the paradox of the Articles! 🤷♂️
3.8 The Constitutional Convention and Debates over Ratification
Learning Objective:
Explain the differing ideological positions on the structure and function of the federal government.
🏛️ The Constitutional Convention (Summer 1787)
Setting and Participants:
- Location: Philadelphia's Independence Hall (same building as Declaration of Independence)
- Original purpose: Revise the Articles of Confederation
- Actual result: Completely new constitution
- Key figures: George Washington (presiding officer), James Madison ("Father of the Constitution"), Alexander Hamilton, Benjamin Franklin
- Secrecy: Closed sessions allowed for open debate and compromise
⚖️ Major Compromises
The Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise):
- Issue: How should states be represented in Congress?
- Virginia Plan: Representation based on population (favored large states)
- New Jersey Plan: Equal representation for all states (favored small states)
- Solution: Bicameral legislature with House based on population, Senate with equal representation
- Impact: Made ratification possible by satisfying both large and small states
Three-Fifths Compromise:
- Issue: Should enslaved people count for representation and taxation?
- Northern position: Don't count for representation (reduces Southern political power)
- Southern position: Count fully for representation but not taxation
- Solution: Count enslaved people as 3/5 of a person for both representation and taxation
- Moral impact: Enshrined slavery in Constitution, treated humans as property
Commerce and Slavery Compromises:
- Slave trade: Congress couldn't ban importation of enslaved people for 20 years (until 1808)
- Fugitive slave clause: Runaway enslaved people must be returned to owners
- Export taxes: Congress couldn't tax exports (protected Southern agricultural products)
- Navigation acts: Required simple majority (not 2/3) for commercial legislation
🏛️ Key Constitutional Principles
Separation of Powers:
- Legislative Branch: Congress makes laws
- Executive Branch: President enforces laws
- Judicial Branch: Supreme Court interprets laws
Checks and Balances:
- Presidential veto: President can reject Congressional legislation
- Congressional override: 2/3 majority can override presidential veto
- Judicial review: Courts can declare laws unconstitutional (established later in Marbury v. Madison)
- Senate confirmation: Senate must approve presidential appointments
- Impeachment: Congress can remove president and judges for "high crimes and misdemeanors"
Federalism:
- Division of power: Between national and state governments
- Supremacy clause: National law supreme over state law when in conflict
- Reserved powers: Powers not given to national government reserved to states
🗳️ The Ratification Debate
Federalists (Pro-Constitution):
- Leaders: Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay
- Arguments: Strong national government necessary for unity, security, and prosperity
- Support base: Urban merchants, professionals, creditors
- The Federalist Papers: 85 essays defending Constitution (Publius)
- Key points: Checks and balances prevent tyranny, large republic controls factions
Anti-Federalists (Anti-Constitution):
- Leaders: Patrick Henry, George Clinton, Robert Yates
- Arguments: Constitution creates dangerous concentration of power
- Support base: Small farmers, rural areas, debtors
- Key concerns: No bill of rights, president too powerful, Congress too distant
- Preferred system: Confederation of sovereign states
📋 The Bill of Rights
Compromise for Ratification:
- Federalist promise: Add bill of rights as first amendments
- James Madison's role: Drafted the first 10 amendments
- Ratification (1791): Fulfilled promise to Anti-Federalists
- Key protections: Freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly; protection from unreasonable searches; jury trial rights
Click to explore constitutional genius! 🧠
3.9 The Constitution
Learning Objective:
Explain how the Constitution addressed the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.
🔧 Fixing the Articles' Problems
Articles vs. Constitution Comparison:
| Issue | Articles of Confederation | Constitution |
|---|---|---|
| Executive Power | No chief executive | Strong president with veto power |
| Judicial System | No federal courts | Federal court system with Supreme Court |
| Legislative Structure | Unicameral, equal state representation | Bicameral, mixed representation |
| Taxation Power | No direct taxation power | Congress can tax individuals directly |
| Commerce Regulation | No power over interstate trade | Congress regulates interstate commerce |
| Amendment Process | Unanimous consent required | 2/3 of both houses + 3/4 of states |
| Law Enforcement | No way to enforce national law | Federal officials enforce federal law |
| National Supremacy | State law could override national law | Supremacy clause makes federal law supreme |
🏛️ Structure of the New Government
Legislative Branch (Article I):
- House of Representatives: 2-year terms, representation by population
- Senate: 6-year terms, equal representation (2 per state)
- Powers: Tax, regulate interstate commerce, coin money, establish post offices, declare war
- Necessary and proper clause: "Elastic clause" allows Congress to carry out enumerated powers
Executive Branch (Article II):
- Electoral College: Indirect election system balancing popular and state representation
- 4-year terms: No limit specified (22nd Amendment later limited to 2 terms)
- Powers: Execute laws, command military, veto legislation, make treaties (with Senate approval)
- Appointments: Nominate judges and executive officers (with Senate confirmation)
Judicial Branch (Article III):
- Federal court system: Supreme Court and lower courts created by Congress
- Life tenure: Judges serve "during good behavior" to ensure independence
- Judicial review: Power to declare laws unconstitutional (not explicitly stated but implied)
- Jurisdiction: Federal law, interstate disputes, cases involving foreign governments
⚖️ Constitutional Principles in Action
Limited Government:
- Enumerated powers: Government can only do what Constitution explicitly allows
- Bill of Rights: Explicit protections for individual liberties
- Judicial review: Courts can strike down unconstitutional actions
Popular Sovereignty:
- "We the People": Constitution derives authority from the people
- Representative government: People elect officials to govern for them
- Amendment process: People can change Constitution through their representatives
Rule of Law:
- Constitutional supremacy: All government officials bound by Constitution
- Due process: Government must follow legal procedures
- Equal justice: Law applies equally to all people
🔄 The Amendment Process
Two-Stage Process:
- Proposal: 2/3 vote in both houses of Congress OR constitutional convention called by 2/3 of states
- Ratification: 3/4 of state legislatures OR 3/4 of state conventions
- Difficulty by design: Prevents hasty changes while allowing necessary reforms
- 27 amendments total: First 10 (Bill of Rights) added immediately
🌟 Constitutional Legacy
- Oldest written constitution: Still in effect after 235+ years
- Model for other nations: Influenced democratic constitutions worldwide
- Flexibility: Amendment process allows adaptation to changing times
- Balance of power: Prevents concentration of power in any single branch or level of government
📝 Quick Review: Can you explain how the Constitution addressed each weakness of the Articles of Confederation? Think about executive power, taxation, commerce regulation, and law enforcement!
3.10 Shaping a New Republic
Learning Objective:
Explain how and why political ideas, institutions, and party systems developed and changed in the new republic.
👑 Washington's Presidency (1789-1797)
Establishing Precedents:
- Presidential title: "Mr. President" rather than "Your Majesty" or "Your Excellency"
- Cabinet system: Created departments (State, Treasury, War, Attorney General)
- Two-term tradition: Stepped down after two terms, setting precedent until FDR
- Farewell Address: Warned against political parties and foreign entanglements
- Judicial appointments: Appointed first Supreme Court justices
💰 Hamilton's Financial Program
Alexander Hamilton's Economic Vision:
- Assumption of state debts: Federal government would pay Revolutionary War debts
- National bank: Bank of the United States to stabilize currency and credit
- Excise taxes: Taxes on luxury goods like whiskey to raise revenue
- Protective tariffs: Encourage American manufacturing
- Industrial development: Transform America from agricultural to manufacturing economy
Goals:
- Establish good credit for the new nation
- Create financial stability and investor confidence
- Strengthen federal government
- Build modern capitalist economy
🎭 Emergence of Political Parties
Federalist Party:
- Leaders: Alexander Hamilton, John Adams
- Philosophy: Strong federal government, loose interpretation of Constitution
- Economic policy: Pro-business, national bank, manufacturing
- Foreign policy: Pro-British, anti-French Revolution
- Support base: Urban merchants, professionals, Northern interests
Democratic-Republican Party:
- Leaders: Thomas Jefferson, James Madison
- Philosophy: Limited federal government, strict interpretation of Constitution
- Economic policy: Pro-agriculture, against national bank
- Foreign policy: Pro-French, suspicious of British
- Support base: Farmers, Southern and Western interests
🥃 The Whiskey Rebellion (1794)
Testing Federal Authority:
- Cause: Federal excise tax on whiskey hurt western Pennsylvania farmers
- Resistance: Farmers refused to pay tax, attacked federal tax collectors
- Washington's response: Led 13,000 federal troops to suppress rebellion
- Significance: Demonstrated federal government's power to enforce laws
- Contrast with Shays': Unlike under Articles, government could respond effectively
🌍 Foreign Policy Challenges
French Revolution and European Wars: America struggled to remain neutral while France and Britain pressured for support. Jay's Treaty (1795) with Britain sparked controversy but avoided war.
⚖️ John Adams' Presidency (1797-1801)
XYZ Affair (1797-1798):
- Background: French seizure of American ships led to diplomatic mission
- Insult: French officials (X, Y, Z) demanded bribes before negotiations
- American response: "Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute"
- Quasi-War: Undeclared naval war with France (1798-1800)
- Resolution: Convention of 1800 ended hostilities
Alien and Sedition Acts (1798):
- Alien Acts: Extended naturalization period, allowed deportation of dangerous aliens
- Sedition Act: Made criticism of government a crime
- Target: Democratic-Republican opposition and French immigrants
- Opposition: Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions asserted state rights
- Consequence: Contributed to Federalist defeat in 1800 election
🗳️ Election of 1800: "Revolution of 1800"
Peaceful Transfer of Power:
- Candidates: Thomas Jefferson (Dem-Rep) vs. John Adams (Federalist)
- Issues: Size of government, foreign policy, individual rights
- Electoral College tie: Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied, House decided election
- Hamilton's role: Supported Jefferson over Burr despite political differences
- Significance: First peaceful transfer of power between opposing parties
- 12th Amendment: Resulted in electoral college reform
Click to explore this democratic milestone! 🗳️
3.11 Developing an American Identity
Learning Objective:
Explain the differing ideological positions on the structure and function of the federal government.
🇺🇸 Cultural Nationalism
Creating American Culture:
- Noah Webster: American dictionary and spellers promoted American English
- Parson Weems: Created heroic myths about George Washington (cherry tree story)
- American literature: Emphasis on democratic themes and American settings
- Architecture: Neo-classical style for government buildings (Capitol, White House)
- Arts: Paintings celebrating American landscapes and historical events
📚 Education and Republican Values
- Public education: Needed to create informed republican citizens
- Women's education: Republican motherhood required educated women
- Civic instruction: Teaching democratic values and national history
- National universities: Proposals for national education institutions
🙏 Religious Developments
Second Great Awakening Beginnings:
- Emotional religious revivals emphasized individual salvation
- Democratic religious styles appealed to common people
- Growth of Baptist and Methodist denominations
- Camp meetings brought religion to frontier areas
3.12 Movement in the Early Republic
Learning Objective:
Explain how and why migration and immigration to and within North America caused competition and conflict over time.
🌎 Westward Expansion
Push and Pull Factors:
- Economic opportunity: Cheap land in western territories
- Population pressure: Increasing population in eastern states
- Transportation improvements: Roads and rivers made travel easier
- Government policy: Land ordinances facilitated settlement
🏞️ Conflicts with Native Americans
- Northwest Territory conflicts: Little Turtle's War, Battle of Fallen Timbers
- Treaty of Greenville (1795): Opened Ohio to white settlement
- Continuing resistance: Tecumseh and pan-Indian movement
🌾 Agricultural Expansion
Cotton Revolution:
- Eli Whitney's cotton gin (1793) made short-staple cotton profitable
- Expansion of slavery into new territories
- Economic importance of cotton exports
- Environmental impact of cotton cultivation
3.13 Continuity and Change in Period 3 (1754-1800)
Learning Objective:
Explain how the American independence movement affected society from 1754 to 1800.
🔄 Continuities
What Remained the Same:
- Slavery: Institution strengthened despite revolutionary rhetoric
- Women's legal status: Limited political and economic rights continued
- Native American dispossession: Westward expansion continued displacing tribes
- Economic inequality: Class distinctions persisted in new forms
- Regional differences: North-South economic and social divisions
⚡ Changes
Revolutionary Transformations:
- Political system: From monarchy to republic with written constitution
- Social hierarchy: Merit-based advancement over inherited status
- Religious freedom: Separation of church and state
- Economic opportunities: Expanded access to land and trade
- National identity: Shift from British subjects to American citizens
- Rights consciousness: Growing awareness of individual rights
🎯 Long-term Impact
- Democratic inspiration: American Revolution inspired democratic movements worldwide
- Constitutional model: Federal system copied by other nations
- Unresolved contradictions: Slavery and equality tensions would lead to Civil War
- Westward expansion: Set pattern for continental growth
- Political parties: Two-party system became permanent feature
📖 Unit 3 Summary & AP Exam Strategies
🎯 Key Themes to Master
- Imperial Crisis: How British policies after 1763 led to colonial resistance
- Philosophical Foundations: Enlightenment ideas in Declaration and Constitution
- Revolutionary War: Military, diplomatic, and social aspects of independence struggle
- Constitutional Development: From Articles of Confederation to Constitution
- Political Parties: Federalist vs. Democratic-Republican ideologies and policies
- Social Changes: Impact of revolutionary ideals on different groups
💡 AP Exam Success Strategies
For Multiple Choice Questions:
- Focus on cause-and-effect relationships (British policies → colonial resistance → revolution)
- Understand ideological differences between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans
- Know specific events, dates, and their significance
- Practice analyzing primary source excerpts from key documents
For Short Answer Questions:
- Practice explaining how the Constitution addressed weaknesses of the Articles
- Analyze how revolutionary ideals affected different groups differently
- Compare British and American perspectives on imperial crisis
- Explain the development of political parties and their competing visions
For Long Essay Questions:
- Connect revolutionary ideals to later reform movements
- Analyze continuities and changes from colonial to early national period
- Evaluate the extent to which the Revolution was "revolutionary"
- Compare American Revolution to other revolutions or independence movements
📚 Essential Vocabulary
Must-Know Terms:
French and Indian War, Proclamation of 1763, Stamp Act, Boston Tea Party, Intolerable Acts, Declaration of Independence, natural rights, social contract, Continental Army, Saratoga, Yorktown, Articles of Confederation, Shays' Rebellion, Constitutional Convention, Great Compromise, Three-Fifths Compromise, Federalists, Anti-Federalists, Bill of Rights, Hamilton's financial plan, Whiskey Rebellion, political parties, XYZ Affair, Alien and Sedition Acts, Election of 1800
📅 Critical Dates
Essential Chronology: 1754 (French and Indian War begins), 1763 (Treaty of Paris, Proclamation), 1765 (Stamp Act), 1773 (Boston Tea Party), 1774 (Intolerable Acts), 1775 (Lexington and Concord), 1776 (Declaration of Independence), 1777 (Saratoga), 1781 (Yorktown, Articles ratified), 1783 (Treaty of Paris), 1786 (Shays' Rebellion), 1787 (Constitutional Convention), 1788 (Constitution ratified), 1791 (Bill of Rights), 1794 (Whiskey Rebellion), 1798 (XYZ Affair, Alien and Sedition Acts), 1800 (Election of 1800)