Unit 2, Period 2: 1607–1754

Topic 2.4: Transatlantic Trade

Theme: Work, Exchange, and Technology (WXT)

📚 Topic Overview

Between 1607 and 1754, an Atlantic economy emerged that connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas in a vast network of trade, migration, and cultural exchange. This transatlantic trade system moved goods, enslaved people, ideas, and diseases across the ocean, transforming all societies involved. European powers, especially Britain, operated under mercantilism—an economic theory that colonies existed to benefit the mother country by supplying raw materials and purchasing manufactured goods. Britain enforced this through the Navigation Acts and other trade regulations, though "salutary neglect" meant enforcement was often lax. The triangular trade connected three continents: manufactured goods from Europe to Africa, enslaved Africans to the Americas via the horrific Middle Passage, and colonial commodities (tobacco, sugar, rice, rum) back to Europe. This system enriched European merchants and colonial planters while devastating African and Native American communities and establishing the brutal institution of chattel slavery that would shape American history for centuries.

🎯 Learning Objective

Explain the causes and effects of transatlantic trade over time.

💡 Key Concepts

KC-2.1.III.A

An Atlantic economy developed in which goods, as well as enslaved Africans and American Indians, were exchanged between Europe, Africa, and the Americas through extensive trade networks. European colonial economies focused on acquiring, producing, and exporting commodities that were valued in Europe and gaining new sources of labor.

KC-2.1.III.B

Continuing trade with Europeans increased the flow of goods in and out of American Indian communities, stimulating cultural and economic changes and spreading epidemic diseases that caused radical demographic shifts.

KC-2.2.I.C

The British government increasingly attempted to incorporate its North American colonies into a coherent, hierarchical, and imperial structure in order to pursue mercantilist economic aims, but conflicts with colonists and American Indians led to erratic enforcement of imperial policies.

🌊 The Atlantic Economy: Connecting Three Continents

⚡ The Atlantic Ocean became a "highway" linking Europe, Africa, and the Americas in a complex network that moved goods, people (both free and enslaved), ideas, diseases, and cultures. This Atlantic World fundamentally transformed all societies involved.

What Was the Atlantic Economy?

The Atlantic economy was an interconnected system of trade and exchange that developed in the 17th-18th centuries, linking European colonial powers, African kingdoms and traders, and American colonies (both on the mainland and in the Caribbean).

Main Components:

Goods Exchange: Raw materials, foodstuffs, and manufactured products moved between continents
Labor Movement: Enslaved Africans forcibly transported to Americas; indentured servants from Europe
New Markets: European manufactured goods found markets in Americas and Africa
Disease Transmission: Epidemic diseases spread along trade routes
Cultural Exchange: Ideas, religions, languages, foods mixed and transformed

Major Trade Routes & Flows:

Europe → Africa:

Manufactured goods (textiles, cloth, iron tools, firearms), rum, other finished products

Africa → Americas (Middle Passage):

Enslaved Africans (~12 million transported), gold, ivory

Americas → Europe:

Cash crops: tobacco, sugar, rice, indigo, cotton; also furs, timber, fish, naval stores

North America ↔ West Indies:

Colonies exported lumber, food, fish to Caribbean; imported molasses, sugar, rum

💰 Mercantilism: The Economic Theory Behind Empire

Mercantilism was THE guiding economic philosophy of European colonial powers from the 16th-18th centuries. Understanding mercantilism is ESSENTIAL to understanding colonial trade policies.

Core Principles of Mercantilism:

Wealth = Power: Nation's power measured by accumulation of gold and silver (bullion)
Favorable Balance of Trade: Export MORE than you import to gain wealth
Colonies Exist for Mother Country: Colonies should benefit the empire, not themselves
Government Regulation: State actively controls and regulates economy
Self-Sufficiency: Empire should be economically independent

How Mercantilism Worked in British Empire:

Colonial Role:

Supply raw materials to Britain (tobacco, timber, furs, naval stores)
Provide markets for British manufactured goods
Generate revenue through taxes and trade duties
NOT allowed to manufacture goods that competed with British industries
NOT allowed to trade freely with other nations

Britain's Role:

Process raw materials into finished products
Sell manufactured goods back to colonies at profit
Control shipping to keep profits within empire
Accumulate wealth from colonial trade

The Cycle:

1. Colonies send RAW MATERIALS (tobacco, timber, furs) to Britain
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2. Britain MANUFACTURES these into finished goods (furniture, tools, cloth)
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3. Britain SELLS finished goods back to colonies at HIGHER PRICES
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4. Britain PROFITS at every stage; colonists PAY more than they receive

⚖️ Navigation Acts: Enforcing Mercantilism

The Navigation Acts were a series of British laws (starting 1651) designed to control colonial trade and ensure that Britain profited from the colonial economy. These laws DEFINED the colonial economic relationship with Britain.

Key Provisions of Navigation Acts:

1. Shipping Restrictions:

All colonial goods MUST be transported on English (later British) ships
Ships must be built in England or the colonies
Ship crews must be at least 75% English
PURPOSE: Protect British shipping industry; keep profits in empire

2. Enumerated Goods (Most Important!):

Certain valuable colonial products could ONLY be shipped to England or other English colonies
Listed goods included: Tobacco, sugar, cotton, indigo, rice, naval stores, furs
Could NOT be sold directly to France, Spain, Netherlands, etc.
PURPOSE: Ensure Britain got colonial commodities; prevent rivals from benefiting

3. Staple Act / Trade Through England:

European goods bound for colonies MUST pass through English ports first
England collected import duties on goods passing through
PURPOSE: Generate revenue; control what colonists could buy

4. Manufacturing Restrictions:

Wool Act (1699): Prohibited export of woolen cloth from colonies
Hat Act (1732): Restricted colonial hat-making
Iron Act (1750): Prohibited new iron forges/mills; colonies produced raw iron only
PURPOSE: Prevent colonial competition with British manufacturers

Other Important Trade Regulations:

Molasses Act (1733): High duties on molasses imported from non-British Caribbean islands; aimed to protect British West Indies sugar planters

Mixed Effects on Colonists:

✅ Benefits (Some Colonists):

Tobacco planters had guaranteed British market
Colonial shipbuilders thrived (ships had to be British-built)
New England shipping industry grew
Some goods received British bounties/subsidies

❌ Burdens (Most Colonists):

Restricted economic freedom—couldn't trade with who they wanted
Higher prices for manufactured goods (British monopoly)
Limited manufacturing—couldn't develop own industries
Couldn't compete with British producers
Led to widespread smuggling and resentment

😴 Salutary Neglect: Benign Neglect of the Colonies

⚡ Despite all these laws, Britain often DIDN'T strictly enforce them! This unofficial policy of "looking the other way" was called Salutary Neglect—and it profoundly shaped colonial development.

What Was Salutary Neglect?

Definition: British policy of loose, lax enforcement of colonial trade regulations (~1690s-1763)
Associated with: Robert Walpole, Britain's first Prime Minister (1721-1742)
In practice: Laws existed on paper but weren't vigorously enforced
Customs officials often bribed or ignored violations

Why Did Britain Practice Salutary Neglect?

Distance: 3,000 miles across Atlantic made enforcement difficult and expensive
Distracted by European affairs: Britain focused on wars in Europe, not colonial policing
Economic pragmatism: Colonies were prospering; strict enforcement might hurt overall trade
Political calculation: Colonists buying British goods regardless; why create conflict?
Corruption: Colonial officials and British customs agents profited from bribes

Effects of Salutary Neglect:

Positive for Colonies:

Economic growth: Colonial trade and prosperity increased
Self-governance: Colonial assemblies grew stronger and more independent
Political autonomy: Colonists developed expectations of self-rule
Smuggling flourished: Colonists traded with French, Dutch, Spanish West Indies
Colonial identity: Distance from Britain fostered distinct American identity

Long-Term Problem:

Colonists grew accustomed to autonomy
When Britain ended salutary neglect after 1763 (French & Indian War), colonists were OUTRAGED
Sudden strict enforcement felt like violation of their rights
Set stage for American Revolution

🔺 Triangular Trade: The Three-Leg System

The "Triangular Trade" refers to the three-way exchange connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Actually many overlapping trade routes, but the most infamous involved the transatlantic slave trade.

Classic Triangular Trade Pattern:

LEG 1: Europe/New England → Africa

Goods carried: Manufactured goods, textiles, rum, firearms, iron products, beads
Purpose: Trade for enslaved Africans
Ships departed from Britain, France, or New England ports (Boston, Newport)

LEG 2: Africa → Americas (THE MIDDLE PASSAGE)

"Cargo": Enslaved Africans—men, women, children forcibly transported
Destinations: West Indies (Caribbean), Brazil, mainland British colonies (Chesapeake, Lower South)
Conditions: HORRIFIC—packed tightly, disease, brutality, death
Mortality rate: ~15-20% died during voyage
THIS LEG WAS THE HEART OF THE ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

LEG 3: Americas → Europe/New England

Goods carried: Cash crops and raw materials produced by enslaved labor
Products: Sugar, molasses, tobacco, rice, indigo, cotton, rum
Also: Timber, furs, fish from northern colonies
Destinations: European markets and back to colonial ports

Other Important Trade Routes:

North America ↔ West Indies: Colonies sent food, lumber, fish to Caribbean; received molasses, sugar
Rum Trade: New England distilleries turned Caribbean molasses into rum → sold to Africa for slaves
Coastal trade: Colonies traded with each other along Atlantic seaboard

⛓️ The Middle Passage: Horrific Journey

⚠️ The Middle Passage was the forced voyage of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas—one of the most brutal chapters in human history. This is a CRITICAL topic for APUSH.

Statistics & Scale:

~12 million Africans forcibly transported to Americas (1500s-1800s)
Duration: Voyage lasted 2-6 months depending on weather and route
Mortality rate: ~15-20% died during crossing
Peak period: 1700s saw highest volume of slave trade
Created the African Diaspora—dispersal of African peoples across Americas

Conditions Aboard Slave Ships:

Tight packing: Enslaved people chained and packed tightly in ship holds; minimal space
Unsanitary conditions: Disease rampant (dysentery, smallpox, scurvy); no toilets
Brutal treatment: Beatings, torture, sexual violence by crew
Starvation & dehydration: Inadequate food and water
Psychological trauma: Terror, separation from families, loss of freedom
Suicide: Many jumped overboard; others refused to eat

Process:

1. Africans captured in raids or purchased from African traders/kingdoms
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2. Held in coastal forts/barracoons (slave prisons) waiting for ships
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3. Branded, chained, loaded onto ships
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4. Endured 2-6 month Middle Passage across Atlantic
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5. Arrived in Americas; sold at slave auctions
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6. Forced to work on plantations for life

Resistance & Survival:

Shipboard rebellions: Enslaved people sometimes revolted despite overwhelming odds
Suicide as resistance: Refusing to participate in own enslavement
Cultural retention: Maintained languages, religions, customs despite trauma
Community bonds: Formed connections with fellow captives

Historical Significance:

Largest forced migration in human history
Created African American population and culture
Economic foundation of plantation economies (sugar, tobacco, rice)
Legacy of racism and inequality persists today
Eyewitness accounts (Olaudah Equiano) documented horrors

🌍 Impact of Transatlantic Trade on Different Groups

Impact on Native Americans:

Trade with Europeans brought both opportunities and catastrophic consequences for Native communities.

Economic Changes:

Fur trade integration: Many tribes became dependent on European fur trade
New goods: Access to metal tools, firearms, cloth, beads
Economic dependency: Traditional economies disrupted; relied on European goods
Changed labor patterns: Men focused more on hunting/trapping for trade
Intertribal competition: Conflicts over hunting grounds and access to European traders

Cultural & Social Changes:

Traditional practices altered by new technologies
Alcohol introduced—devastating social effects
Some tribes gained power through European alliances
Gender roles shifted as economies changed

Demographic Catastrophe:

Epidemic diseases spread along trade routes: Smallpox, measles, influenza, typhus
Population collapse: Some regions lost 50-90% of Native population
Social disruption: Communities shattered; political structures collapsed
Loss of autonomy: Weakened populations couldn't resist European encroachment
Land seizures accelerated as Native power declined

Impact on Africans & Enslaved People:

Devastating Human Costs:

~12 million forcibly transported from Africa to Americas
Loss of freedom, family, homeland: Torn from communities
Brutal conditions: Middle Passage, plantation labor, violence
Chattel slavery: Treated as property; hereditary enslavement
No legal rights or protections

Impact on African Societies:

Population loss, especially young adults
Increased warfare as kingdoms raided for captives
Economic disruption and dependency on slave trade
Some African elites profited from trade

Resistance & Resilience:

Cultural retention: Maintained African languages, religions, music, foodways
Rebellion: Shipboard revolts, slave rebellions (Stono Rebellion 1739)
Communities: Built families and communities despite oppression
Cultural creation: Developed unique African American culture (Gullah, spirituals)

Impact on European Colonists & Britain:

Economic Benefits:

Colonial prosperity: Trade enriched merchants, planters, shipbuilders
Port cities grew: Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Charleston thrived
British economic dominance: Mercantilism channeled wealth to Britain
Consumer goods: Colonists gained access to wider variety of products

Political Tensions:

Resentment over Navigation Acts and trade restrictions
Widespread smuggling to evade regulations
Colonial assemblies clashed with royal governors over trade
Growing sense of colonial autonomy and American identity
Seeds of Revolution planted

👑 British Control Attempts: Dominion & Glorious Revolution

Dominion of New England (1686-1689):

King James II's attempt to consolidate control over colonies by merging them into single administrative unit—a short-lived disaster.

Created 1686: Merged Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, later New York, New Jersey
Governor: Sir Edmund Andros—appointed by king, no elected assembly
Goals: Strict enforcement of Navigation Acts; end colonial self-government; increase royal control
Colonial reaction: OUTRAGE—seen as tyranny; loss of charters and rights
Andros tried to collect taxes without assembly approval
Restricted town meetings
Challenged land titles

Glorious Revolution (1688) & Colonial Impact:

In England: King James II (Catholic) overthrown; replaced by William III & Mary II (Protestants)
Bloodless coup: Parliament asserted power over monarchy
English Bill of Rights (1689): Limited royal power; protected subjects' rights

Colonial Response:

Colonists revolted: Arrested Governor Andros in Massachusetts (1689)
Dominion collapsed: Colonies restored old charters and assemblies
Leisler's Rebellion: New York uprising against Dominion
Maryland Catholics overthrown by Protestant colonists
Significance: Colonists claimed rights of Englishmen; expected representative government

📝 Essential Key Terms & Concepts

Atlantic Economy

Interconnected trade system linking Europe, Africa, Americas; exchanged goods, people, ideas

Mercantilism

Economic theory: colonies exist to benefit mother country; accumulate gold/silver

Navigation Acts (1651+)

Series of British laws controlling colonial trade; required English ships; enumerated goods

Enumerated Goods

Colonial products (tobacco, sugar, rice) that could ONLY be shipped to England

Salutary Neglect

British policy of lax enforcement of colonial trade laws (~1690s-1763)

Triangular Trade

Three-way trade: Europe/New England → Africa → Americas → back; included slave trade

Middle Passage

Horrific voyage of enslaved Africans across Atlantic; 15-20% mortality rate

Transatlantic Slave Trade

Forced transportation of ~12 million Africans to Americas (1500s-1800s)

African Diaspora

Dispersal of African peoples across Americas through slave trade

Molasses Act (1733)

High duties on non-British molasses; protect British West Indies; widely evaded

Dominion of New England

James II's failed attempt (1686-1689) to consolidate control; merged colonies

Sir Edmund Andros

Governor of Dominion of New England; enforced Navigation Acts; arrested 1689

Glorious Revolution (1688)

Bloodless coup in England; James II replaced by William & Mary; ended Dominion

English Bill of Rights (1689)

Limited monarchy power; protected subjects' rights; influenced colonial expectations

Robert Walpole

First British Prime Minister (1721-1742); associated with salutary neglect

Olaudah Equiano

Formerly enslaved; wrote autobiography documenting Middle Passage horrors

💡 AP® Exam Tips for Topic 2.4

Master causation: Explain WHY transatlantic trade developed and WHAT effects it had on all groups
Understand mercantilism thoroughly: This is THE economic theory behind everything—know it cold
Navigation Acts are crucial: Know what they required, why colonists resented them, salutary neglect
Triangular Trade routes: Be able to describe the three legs and what moved on each
Middle Passage details: Understand conditions, mortality, scale—this appears on DBQs
Impact on different groups: Compare effects on Native Americans, Africans, Europeans—different for each!
Salutary neglect is key: Understand why it happened and why ending it after 1763 caused Revolution
Dominion/Glorious Revolution: Shows colonial resistance to British control—foreshadows Revolution
Connect to other topics: Trade links to labor systems (2.5), regional economies (2.3), colonial society (2.6)
Practice writing: SAQs and LEQs love asking about causes/effects of transatlantic trade

📚 AP® U.S. History Unit 2, Topic 2.4 Study Notes | Period 2: 1607–1754