Unit 2, Period 2: 1607–1754

Topic 2.6: Slavery in the British Colonies

Themes: Work, Exchange, and Technology (WXT) | Social Structures (SOC)

📚 Topic Overview

Between 1607 and 1754, slavery evolved from a relatively fluid labor system into a rigid, race-based institution of chattel slavery that became fundamental to the British colonial economy, particularly in the South. All British colonies participated in the Atlantic slave trade and used enslaved labor to varying degrees, responding to abundant land, growing European demand for colonial goods (tobacco, rice, sugar, indigo), and a declining supply of indentured servants. The transition from indentured servitude to racial slavery accelerated after Bacon's Rebellion (1676), when colonial elites sought a more controllable labor force. Colonial legislatures passed increasingly harsh slave codes that legally defined enslaved Africans as property, made slavery hereditary through the mother's line, prohibited interracial relationships, and stripped enslaved people of all legal rights—creating a strict racial hierarchy that equated Blackness with perpetual bondage. Despite the brutal oppression, enslaved Africans resisted through both overt rebellions (like the Stono Rebellion) and covert means, while maintaining African cultural traditions, family structures, and religious practices that would shape American culture for centuries.

🎯 Learning Objectives

Learning Objective F: Explain the causes and effects of slavery in the various British colonial regions.

Learning Objective G: Explain how enslaved people responded to slavery.

💡 Key Concepts

KC-2.2.II.A

All the British colonies participated to varying degrees in the Atlantic slave trade due to the abundance of land and a growing European demand for colonial goods, as well as a shortage of indentured servants. Small New England farms used relatively few enslaved laborers, all port cities held significant minorities of enslaved people, and the emerging plantation systems of the Chesapeake and the southern Atlantic coast had large numbers of enslaved workers, while the great majority of enslaved Africans were sent to the West Indies.

KC-2.2.II.B

As chattel slavery became the dominant labor system in many southern colonies, new laws created a strict racial system that prohibited interracial relationships and defined the descendants of African American mothers as black and enslaved in perpetuity.

KC-2.2.II.C

Africans developed both overt and covert means to resist the dehumanizing aspects of slavery and maintain their family and gender systems, culture, and religion.

⚡ Development of Slavery in Colonial America

⚡ CRITICAL UNDERSTANDING: Slavery didn't start as a racial institution—it became one. The shift from indentured servitude to racial chattel slavery was gradual but deliberate, driven by economic needs and codified through law.

Timeline of Key Developments:

1619 — First Africans Arrive in Jamestown:

~20 Africans brought by Dutch traders to Virginia
Initially treated similarly to indentured servants
Some eventually gained freedom and owned property
NOT yet defined as slaves for life

1640s-1650s — Legal Status Becomes Unclear:

1640: John Punch case—Black servant sentenced to lifetime servitude (one of first instances)
1654: John Casor becomes first person legally declared a slave for life in court (owned by Anthony Johnson, a Black landowner)
Some Africans still gaining freedom, owning land, even owning servants/slaves
Legal distinctions between Black and white laborers becoming more pronounced

1660s-1670s — Race-Based Slavery Codified:

1661 — Barbados Slave Code: First comprehensive slave code in English colonies; declared slaves as "chattel" (property)
1662 — Virginia "Partus Sequitur Ventrem": Law stating children inherit mother's status (if mother enslaved, child enslaved)
1664 — Maryland law: Slavery made lifelong and hereditary
1667 — Virginia law: Baptism (becoming Christian) does NOT grant freedom
These laws permanently linked slavery to African ancestry

1676 — Bacon's Rebellion ACCELERATES Shift:

Poor white and Black laborers united in rebellion against Virginia elite
Elite terrified of cross-racial lower-class unity
Solution: Shift from white indentured servants to Black enslaved workers
Strategy: Give poor whites privileges over Blacks to prevent future alliances
Result: Racial divide hardened; slavery became exclusively racial

🔄 Why the Shift from Indentured Servitude to Slavery?

Economic & Demographic Factors:

1. Abundant Land, Scarce Labor:

British North America had VAST land available (taken from Native Americans)
Labor was the limiting factor in colonial wealth
Whoever controlled labor controlled profits

2. Growing European Demand for Colonial Goods:

Tobacco: European addiction created huge market
Sugar: West Indies sugar plantations most profitable
Rice & Indigo: Lower South cash crops
To meet demand, needed large, permanent workforce

3. Decline of Indentured Servitude:

English economy improved → fewer desperate to leave
High mortality rates in colonies discouraged migration
Servants gained freedom after 4-7 years → needed land and competed with elites
Freed servants caused problems (demanded land, rebelled like Bacon's Rebellion)
Supply couldn't meet demand for labor-intensive crops

4. Advantages of Enslaved Labor (from planters' perspective):

Lifelong labor — no freedom after contract ends
Hereditary — children automatically enslaved
No land claims — didn't have to give freedom dues or property
More controllable (in planters' view) — racial distinctions prevented unity with poor whites
Legal protections for owners — slave codes gave masters almost absolute power
Cheaper long-term — initial investment higher, but no ongoing freedom dues

5. Availability Through Atlantic Slave Trade:

Transatlantic slave trade well-established by late 1600s
British merchants and colonists actively participated
Steady supply of enslaved Africans available for purchase
West Indies sugar plantations showed profitability of slavery

⚖️ Slave Codes: Legalizing Racial Oppression

⚠️ Slave codes were laws that institutionalized chattel slavery and created a strict racial hierarchy. These laws are ESSENTIAL for understanding how slavery became a permanent, race-based system. This is a TOP exam topic!

What Were Slave Codes?

Slave codes were comprehensive legal systems that defined enslaved Africans as property (chattel), stripped them of all legal rights, and created mechanisms for maintaining control through violence and restriction.

Major Provisions of Slave Codes:

1. Defined Slaves as Chattel (Property):

Enslaved people legally treated as THINGS, not people
Could be bought, sold, traded, inherited like livestock or tools
No legal personhood or rights
Owner's property rights protected by law

2. Made Slavery Hereditary (Partus Sequitur Ventrem):

"The child follows the condition of the mother"
If mother was enslaved, child automatically enslaved for LIFE
Slavery passed from generation to generation forever ("in perpetuity")
Financially beneficial to slaveholders—children increased owner's wealth
Incentivized sexual exploitation of enslaved women

3. Prohibited Interracial Relationships:

Banned marriage between whites and Blacks
Criminalized sexual relations across racial lines
Particularly harsh on white women/Black men relationships
Reinforced racial boundaries and white supremacy

4. Stripped Legal Rights:

Could NOT: Testify in court against whites
Could NOT: Own property
Could NOT: Enter contracts
Could NOT: Sue in court
Could NOT: Marry legally (no legal recognition of slave marriages)
No legal protection from violence or abuse

5. Restricted Movement & Assembly:

Could not leave plantation without written pass
Slave patrols enforced movement restrictions
Prohibited from gathering in groups (fear of rebellion)
Night curfews imposed

6. Banned Education:

Teaching enslaved people to read/write became ILLEGAL
Fear that literacy would lead to resistance and rebellion
Kept enslaved people dependent and easier to control

7. Prohibited Weapons:

Enslaved people could not possess guns, knives, or other weapons
Prevented armed resistance

8. Authorized Violence:

Masters could whip, brand, mutilate enslaved people
Killing a slave while "correcting" them was often not prosecuted
Violence used to maintain control and instill fear

9. Restricted Manumission (Freeing of Slaves):

Made it difficult or impossible to free enslaved people
Required legislative approval in some colonies
Kept enslaved population large and permanent

🗺️ Regional Variations in Slavery

All British colonies participated in slavery, but the extent and nature varied significantly by region based on climate, crops, and labor needs.

1. New England Colonies:

Small enslaved population: Only ~3% of total population
Why so few? Small family farms; rocky soil; short growing season; mixed economy
Where used: Domestic servants in households; skilled craftsmen; dockworkers
Port cities: Boston, Newport, Providence had significant minorities (up to 25% in some areas)
Participation in slave trade: New England merchants actively participated in triangular trade; built slave ships; profited from trade

2. Middle Colonies:

Moderate enslaved population
New York: Highest percentage in North—inherited Dutch slavery; significant urban slavery
Pennsylvania: Quaker influence meant some opposition, but still participated
Work: Urban laborers, domestic servants, farm workers on medium-sized farms
Port cities: Philadelphia and New York had significant enslaved populations

3. Chesapeake Colonies (Virginia & Maryland):

Large enslaved population: By 1750, ~40% of population
Primary crop: TOBACCO—labor-intensive cash crop for European export
Plantation system: Large estates focused on tobacco cultivation
Labor system: Gang labor—groups working together in fields under overseer supervision
Shift from indentured servitude: By 1700, slavery dominant labor system

4. Lower South / Southern Atlantic Colonies (Carolinas & Georgia):

LARGEST enslaved population: Often 70-90% in low country regions; Black MAJORITY
Primary crops: RICE (most important) and INDIGO—extremely labor-intensive
Task system: Enslaved people assigned daily tasks; if finished early, could work for themselves or rest
Harsh conditions: Rice cultivation in swamps—disease (malaria), snakes, extreme heat; highest mortality rates
African expertise: West Africans brought rice-growing knowledge; made them valuable
Constant importation: Death rates exceeded birth rates; required continuous slave trade
Gullah culture: African majority allowed retention of African languages, customs, traditions

5. British West Indies (Caribbean Islands):

MOST enslaved Africans sent here (not mainland colonies)
Primary crop: SUGAR—most profitable colonial commodity
Barbados model: Developed first comprehensive slave codes (1661); copied by mainland
Brutal conditions: Shortest life expectancy; highest mortality rates
Economic importance: Sugar plantations generated most wealth for British Empire
Connection to mainland: Trade networks; Carolina planters came from Barbados

⛓️ The Middle Passage & Atlantic Slave Trade

⚠️ The Middle Passage was the forced voyage of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic—one of history's greatest atrocities. Understanding this is ESSENTIAL for APUSH.

The Transatlantic Slave Trade:

~12 million Africans forcibly transported to Americas (1500s-1800s)
British participation: Major slave traders; Liverpool, Bristol became wealthy from trade
Colonial involvement: New England merchants financed voyages; built slave ships; traded rum for slaves
Origins: West Africa—Senegambia, Gold Coast, Bight of Benin, Congo-Angola regions
Part of triangular trade connecting Europe, Africa, Americas

Conditions of the Middle Passage:

Duration: 2-6 months depending on weather and route
Tight packing: Chained and packed in ship holds; minimal space (sometimes 18 inches per person)
Unsanitary: Disease rampant (dysentery, smallpox, scurvy); no toilets
Mortality rate: 15-20% died during voyage
Violence: Brutal treatment, beatings, sexual assault by crew
Psychological trauma: Terror, separation from families, loss of homeland
Resistance: Some jumped overboard; others refused to eat; occasional shipboard rebellions

After Arrival:

Sold at slave auctions like livestock
Families often separated permanently
"Seasoning" period—forced adjustment to slavery and new diseases
Many died within first year from disease, malnutrition, despair

✊ Resistance: Overt and Covert

⚡ CRITICAL: Enslaved Africans were NOT passive victims. They actively resisted slavery through rebellion, escape, work slowdowns, cultural preservation, and community building. This resistance is KEY for Learning Objective G!

Overt (Open) Resistance:

1. Rebellions & Uprisings:

Stono Rebellion (1739): MOST IMPORTANT to know for exam!

Location: South Carolina (near Stono River)
Participants: ~20 enslaved Africans (mostly Angolan)
Actions: Killed ~20 whites; burned plantations; marched toward Spanish Florida (which offered freedom to escaped slaves)
Outcome: Brutally suppressed; ~40 enslaved people killed
Consequences: South Carolina passed even HARSHER slave codes; banned drums (communication); tightened restrictions

New York Slave Revolt (1712): Enslaved Africans and Natives set fires; killed 9 whites; 21 executed
New York Conspiracy (1741): Alleged plot (like Salem witch trials); 30+ executed despite little evidence

2. Running Away:

Most common form of overt resistance
Short-term: Temporary escape to visit family or avoid punishment
Long-term: Attempt to reach freedom in North, Spanish territories, or form maroon communities
Maroon communities: Settlements of escaped slaves in remote areas (swamps, mountains); defended themselves against recapture

3. Physical Confrontation:

Attacking overseers or masters (extremely risky)
Arson—burning crops, buildings
Poisoning masters (rare but feared by slaveholders)

Covert (Hidden) Resistance:

1. Work Slowdowns & Sabotage:

Working slowly or inefficiently ("putting one foot down")
Breaking tools and equipment "accidentally"
Feigning illness or incompetence
Damaging crops
Economic sabotage that was hard to prove intentional

2. Cultural Preservation:

Religion: Blended Christianity with African spiritual practices; secret religious meetings; spirituals with coded messages
Music: African rhythms, call-and-response; drums when permitted
Language: Gullah/Geechee (Creole language in Carolinas/Georgia); retained African words and grammar
Storytelling: Oral traditions, folktales (Br'er Rabbit, Anansi); passed down history and values
Foodways: African cooking techniques and ingredients
Crafts: Basket weaving, pottery, textiles in African styles

3. Maintaining Family & Community:

Created family bonds despite no legal recognition of slave marriages
Built kinship networks and extended families
Maintained gender roles and family structures when possible
Naming practices preserved family connections across generations
Community support systems for raising children
Preserved sense of humanity and dignity

4. Negotiation & Accommodation:

Skilled workers negotiated better conditions or hiring out arrangements
Task system allowed some autonomy—work for self after tasks completed
Some earned money through extra work and bought freedom (manumission)
Appeared compliant while resisting in subtle ways

📝 Essential Key Terms & Concepts

Chattel Slavery

System where enslaved people legally treated as property (things) that could be bought, sold, inherited

Slave Codes

Laws defining slaves as property, making slavery hereditary, prohibiting interracial relationships, stripping legal rights

Partus Sequitur Ventrem

"The child follows the condition of the mother"—made slavery hereditary through mother's line

Middle Passage

Horrific voyage of enslaved Africans across Atlantic; 15-20% mortality rate; part of triangular trade

Atlantic Slave Trade

Forced transportation of ~12 million Africans to Americas (1500s-1800s); connected three continents

Indentured Servitude

Labor system where workers contracted for 4-7 years in exchange for passage; declined by late 1600s

Bacon's Rebellion (1676)

Virginia uprising; poor whites and Blacks united; accelerated shift from indentured servitude to racial slavery

Stono Rebellion (1739)

Largest slave uprising in British colonies; South Carolina; ~20 whites killed; led to harsher slave codes

Maroon Communities

Settlements of escaped slaves in remote areas (swamps, mountains); defended independence

Gullah/Geechee

Unique African-American culture and Creole language in SC/GA lowcountry; retained African elements

Task System

Labor system in rice regions; assigned daily tasks; if finished, could work for self or rest

Gang Labor

Labor system in Chesapeake; groups worked together in fields under overseer supervision

Manumission

Freeing of enslaved people; increasingly restricted by slave codes

John Casor

First person in English colonies legally declared slave for life by court decision (1654)

Anthony Johnson

First known Black landowner in Virginia; former indentured servant; owner of John Casor

Barbados

British Caribbean island; first comprehensive slave codes (1661); model for mainland colonies

Olaudah Equiano

Formerly enslaved; wrote autobiography (1789) documenting horrors of Middle Passage

Triangular Trade

Three-way trade: Europe → Africa (goods) → Americas (slaves) → Europe (commodities)

Cash Crops

Crops grown for export/profit: tobacco (Chesapeake), rice/indigo (Lower South), sugar (West Indies)

Plantation System

Large agricultural estates specializing in cash crops; relied heavily on enslaved labor

💡 AP® Exam Tips for Topic 2.6

Understand CAUSATION: WHY shift from indentured servitude to slavery? (land, demand, Bacon's Rebellion, Atlantic trade)
Know slave codes thoroughly: Chattel slavery, hereditary status, prohibited interracial relations—these are HUGE
Regional differences matter: Compare New England (few slaves) vs. Chesapeake (tobacco/gang labor) vs. Lower South (rice/task system/majority enslaved)
Stono Rebellion is critical: Know date (1739), location (SC), causes, outcome, consequences
Resistance is KEY: Both overt (rebellions, running away) AND covert (work slowdowns, cultural preservation, family maintenance)
Middle Passage details: Mortality rate, conditions, duration—emotionally difficult but important
Use specific evidence: Partus sequitur ventrem, Barbados codes, Gullah culture, maroon communities
Compare to Period 1: How did slavery evolve from 1607 to 1754?
DBQ/LEQ preparation: Practice explaining causes AND effects of slavery for each region
Connect themes: WXT (labor systems), SOC (racial hierarchy), GEO (regional variations)