Unit 2, Period 2: 1607–1754

Topic 2.8: Comparison in Period 2

Historical Thinking Skill: COMPARISON

📚 Topic Overview

Topic 2.8 is the CULMINATING TOPIC for Unit 2, focusing on the essential historical thinking skill of COMPARISON. Rather than introducing new content, this topic synthesizes everything from Topics 2.1-2.7 and asks you to COMPARE different colonial developments across Period 2 (1607-1754). The AP® exam LOVES comparison questions, so mastering this skill is absolutely critical! You need to compare: (1) different European colonizers (Spanish vs. French vs. Dutch vs. British), (2) different British colonial regions (New England vs. Middle vs. Chesapeake vs. Lower South), and (3) different aspects of colonial development (economies, labor systems, social structures, governments, Native relations, culture). Understanding these comparisons helps explain how early colonial differences created lasting regional patterns that shaped American history—including sectional conflicts over slavery, differing political traditions, and competing economic interests that would eventually lead to the American Revolution and Civil War.

🎯 Learning Objective

Compare the effects of the development of colonial society in the various regions of North America.

🔍 What is COMPARISON?

Comparison is the process of describing, analyzing, and evaluating SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES between historical developments. Strong comparison goes beyond just listing differences—it explains WHY they existed and WHAT EFFECTS they had.

How to Write Strong Comparisons:

Identify: Point out similarities and differences
Explain: Analyze WHY they differed or were similar
Evaluate: Assess the SIGNIFICANCE of these similarities/differences
Use specific evidence: Always cite concrete examples

Common Comparison Categories for Period 2:

Economic systems (mixed economy, plantation agriculture, fur trade)
Labor systems (family labor, indentured servitude, slavery)
Social structures (egalitarian, hierarchical, racial hierarchies)
Political institutions (town meetings, colonial assemblies, royal governors)
Native American relations (trade alliances, warfare, displacement)
Religious patterns (established churches, pluralism, tolerance)
Settlement patterns (towns, dispersed plantations, trading posts)

🌍 COMPARISON 1: European Colonial Powers

⚡ KEY COMPARISON: Spanish, French, Dutch, and British colonizers had different economic and imperial goals involving land and labor that shaped their colonies differently.

Comparative Table: European Colonizers

Aspect	🇪🇸 SPANISH	🇫🇷 FRENCH	🇳🇱 DUTCH	🇬🇧 BRITISH
Primary Goal	Extract wealth (gold, silver); religious conversion	Fur trade; establish trade networks	Commercial profit through trade	Permanent agricultural settlement; resource extraction
Labor System	Encomienda; mission labor; African slavery	Trade partnerships with Natives; few laborers needed	Mix of free labor, patroons, some slavery	Indentured servitude → racial slavery (varies by region)
Settlement Size	Small Spanish population; controlled large territories	Very small; trading posts and forts	Small; concentrated in New Amsterdam (NYC)	LARGEST settler population; permanent families
Native Relations	Incorporated into colonial society; forced labor; missions; intermarriage common	Trade alliances; military partnerships; intermarriage; cooperative	Pragmatic trade relations; generally peaceful	Displacement; separate societies; frequent conflict over land
Social Structure	Strict caste system based on race/ancestry; mixed-race society	Few settlers; mixed French-Native communities	Diverse, tolerant; merchant-dominated	Varied by region; increasingly racial hierarchy in South
Religion	Catholic missions; forced conversion; Franciscans	Catholic missions; Jesuits; more accommodating	Religious tolerance; Reformed Church	Varied: Puritan, Anglican, Quaker; growing pluralism
Key Regions	Florida, Southwest, California, Mexico	Canada, Great Lakes, Mississippi Valley	New Netherland (New York area)	Atlantic seaboard (13 colonies)

WHY These Differences Existed:

Different economic motivations: Spanish sought precious metals; French wanted furs; British wanted agricultural land
Population differences: Britain sent most settlers (religious refugees, economic migrants); Spain/France sent fewer colonists
Geographic factors: British colonies had better agricultural land; French controlled waterways ideal for fur trade
Imperial organization: Spanish colonies tightly controlled by crown; British allowed more autonomy
Labor availability: British indentured servitude system attracted workers; Spanish/French relied on Native labor/alliances

SIGNIFICANCE of These Differences:

Shaped long-term demographics: British North America became predominantly English-speaking with large European population
Created different cultural legacies: French-Native cooperation vs. British-Native separation influenced later Indian policy
Economic patterns persisted: British agricultural focus vs. French/Spanish extractive economies
Political traditions varied: British self-government tradition vs. Spanish authoritarian control
Imperial rivalries: Different interests led to conflicts (King William's War, Queen Anne's War, etc.)

🏴󠁧󠁢󠁥󠁮󠁧󠁿 COMPARISON 2: British Colonial Regions

⚡ MOST IMPORTANT COMPARISON for the exam! British colonies developed VERY differently based on geography, climate, labor systems, and settlement patterns—creating lasting regional differences.

Comprehensive Regional Comparison Table:

Category	NEW ENGLAND	MIDDLE COLONIES	CHESAPEAKE	LOWER SOUTH
Colonies	MA, CT, RI, NH	NY, NJ, PA, DE	VA, MD	NC, SC, GA
Climate & Geography	Cold winters; rocky, thin soil; short growing season; excellent harbors	Moderate climate; fertile soil; good rivers; longer growing season	Warm climate; fertile soil; long growing season; rivers for transport	Hot, humid; swampy lowlands; very long growing season; disease-prone
Economy	MIXED: Small farms, fishing, shipbuilding, lumber, trade, rum distilleries	"BREADBASKET": Wheat, grain exports; commerce; diverse manufacturing	TOBACCO: Single cash crop plantation system	RICE & INDIGO: Labor-intensive plantation crops
Labor System	FAMILY LABOR: Small farms worked by families; limited slavery (~3%)	MIXED: Free labor, indentured servants, some slavery	TRANSITION: Indentured servitude → racial slavery; gang labor system	PLANTATION SLAVERY: Majority enslaved (70-90%); task system
Settlement Pattern	COMPACT TOWNS: Villages around town common; church/meetinghouse at center	MIXED: Towns and dispersed farms	DISPERSED: Scattered plantations along rivers; few towns	PLANTATION: Large estates; very few towns; Charleston main port
Social Structure	EGALITARIAN: Middle class dominant; less wealth gap; community-focused	DIVERSE: Strong middle class; greatest social mobility	HIERARCHICAL: Planter elite at top; sharp class divisions	MOST HIERARCHICAL: Plantation aristocracy; strict racial caste system
Religion	PURITAN: Congregationalist dominance; high religious participation	PLURALISM: Greatest religious diversity; Quakers, Catholics, Jews, others	ANGLICAN: Established church but weak participation	ANGLICAN: Established church; planters dominated
Government	TOWN MEETINGS: Direct democracy at local level; strong tradition of self-government	REPRESENTATIVE: Colonial assemblies; diverse participation	ELITE RULE: Planter-dominated House of Burgesses	OLIGARCHY: Plantation elite controlled politics
Demographics	Families; balanced gender ratio; LONGEST life expectancy; natural population growth	Most diverse: English, German, Scots-Irish, Dutch, Swedes; balanced families	Initially male-dominated; improving by 1700; growing enslaved population	Black MAJORITY; high mortality (disease); constant slave importation needed
Education & Literacy	HIGHEST: 90% men, 60% women; public schools; Harvard (1636)	MODERATE: Growing schools; College of Philadelphia (Penn)	LOWER: Elite educated; poor less so; William & Mary (1693)	LOWEST: Elite tutors; little public education
Founding Motivation	RELIGIOUS: Puritan "city upon a hill"; religious freedom (RI)	MIXED: Religious tolerance (PA) and economic opportunity	ECONOMIC: Profit through tobacco cultivation	ECONOMIC: Plantation profits; GA also buffer vs. Spanish

WHY These Regional Differences Developed:

1. Geographic & Environmental Factors:

Climate determined crops: New England's cold = no cash crops; Southern warmth = tobacco, rice
Soil quality varied: Rocky New England vs. fertile Middle Colonies vs. rich Chesapeake/South
Natural resources: New England had timber, fish; South had agricultural land
Disease environment: Colder North = healthier; warmer South = malaria, dysentery

2. Settlement Motivations & Demographics:

New England: Religious refugees (Puritans) came as FAMILIES seeking religious freedom
Middle Colonies: Economic opportunity attracted diverse groups seeking tolerance
Chesapeake: Young SINGLE MEN seeking profit through tobacco; gender imbalance early on
Lower South: Economic migrants and Barbados planters bringing slavery model

3. Labor Systems & Economics:

New England: Small farms didn't need large labor force → family labor sufficient
Middle Colonies: Medium farms + commerce = mix of labor systems
Chesapeake: Labor-intensive tobacco → indentured servants, then slavery (after Bacon's Rebellion)
Lower South: Extremely labor-intensive rice/indigo → massive slavery system; African expertise valued

LONG-TERM SIGNIFICANCE of Regional Differences:

These regional patterns created in colonial period had LASTING effects:

Economic divergence: North developed commerce/industry; South remained agricultural/plantation-based → different economic interests
Slavery debate: North's limited slavery vs. South's dependence created moral/economic conflict → Civil War
Political traditions: New England town meetings vs. Southern planter oligarchy → different views on democracy
Social values: North emphasized education, community; South emphasized hierarchy, honor culture
Regional identities: "Yankee" vs. "Southern" identities emerged from these differences
Constitutional debates: Different interests led to compromises (3/5 Compromise, representation debates)
Sectional conflict: Regional tensions persisted through Nullification Crisis, Missouri Compromise, etc.

🤝 COMPARISON 3: Similarities Across ALL British Colonies

Despite regional differences, ALL British colonies shared important characteristics that distinguished them from other European colonies and created a common British American identity.

Common Features Across British Colonies:

1. Political Institutions & Self-Government:

ALL had elected colonial assemblies (mini-Parliaments)
Assemblies gained "power of the purse" (control over colonial budgets/taxes)
Strong tradition of local self-government beyond what existed in Europe
Colonists claimed "rights of Englishmen" (trial by jury, representation, property rights)
Tension between colonial assemblies and royal governors (except RI, CT)

2. English Cultural & Legal Traditions:

ALL based legal systems on English common law
English language dominant (though other languages spoken)
Adopted English political concepts (Parliament, representative government)
Shared British identity—saw themselves as "British subjects" with rights

3. Mercantilism & Atlantic Trade:

ALL participated in Atlantic economy and triangular trade
Subject to Navigation Acts and mercantilist restrictions
Benefited from salutary neglect—lax enforcement allowed economic growth
Colonial economies tied to British markets
ALL participated in slavery and slave trade to some degree

4. Anglicization & Consumer Culture:

Colonists increasingly purchased British manufactured goods
Adopted British fashions, architecture, social customs
Elite sent children to England for education
Read British books, newspapers, literature

5. Intellectual Movements:

Great Awakening (1730s-1740s): First movement to unite ALL colonies
Enlightenment ideas: Spread through print culture; influenced educated elites
Growing transatlantic print culture—newspapers, books, pamphlets

6. Relations with Native Americans:

ALL British colonies generally displaced Natives rather than incorporating them
Competition over land led to repeated conflicts
Created separate societies—unlike Spanish/French integration
Pattern of initial cooperation → conflict → Native defeat/removal

📊 Quick Comparison Chart: Labor Systems

Labor systems were THE KEY DIFFERENCE between regions—shaped everything else!

Labor System	Where Used	Why Adopted	Social Effects
Family Labor	New England primarily	Small farms; subsistence agriculture; no cash crops requiring large workforce	More egalitarian society; strong families; community-centered
Indentured Servitude	ALL colonies early on; Chesapeake especially (1600s)	Solved labor shortage; cheap; workers gained freedom after 4-7 years; headright system	Created landless poor after freedom; led to conflicts (Bacon's Rebellion)
Gang Labor Slavery	Chesapeake (after 1680s); tobacco plantations	Indentured servant supply declined; tobacco labor-intensive; lifetime labor more profitable	Hierarchical society; racial caste system; planter elite dominated
Task System Slavery	Lower South (SC, GA); rice & indigo plantations	Extremely labor-intensive crops; West African rice expertise; disease environment	Black majority; strict racial hierarchy; Gullah culture retained African elements
Mixed Systems	Middle Colonies	Diverse economy needed diverse workforce; grain farms + commerce	Most diverse society; greatest social mobility

✍️ How to Write COMPARISON Responses on the AP® Exam

For Short Answer Questions (SAQs):

SAQ Structure (usually 3 parts: A, B, C):

Part A: Identify ONE similarity/difference (be specific!)
Part B: Provide specific evidence for FIRST region/group
Part C: Provide specific evidence for SECOND region/group

Example SAQ Prompt:

"Compare the labor systems used in the Chesapeake colonies with those used in New England."

Part A (Difference): The Chesapeake colonies relied heavily on enslaved African labor for tobacco cultivation by the early 1700s, while New England colonies primarily used family labor on small subsistence farms.

Part B (Chesapeake evidence): In Virginia and Maryland, the transition from indentured servitude to racial chattel slavery accelerated after Bacon's Rebellion (1676), as planters sought a more permanent, controllable workforce for labor-intensive tobacco plantations. By 1700, slave codes legally defined slavery as hereditary through the mother's line (partus sequitur ventrem).

Part C (New England evidence): In Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island, rocky soil and short growing seasons made large-scale plantation agriculture impossible, so families worked small farms producing corn, wheat, and vegetables primarily for subsistence rather than export, requiring no large external labor force beyond family members.

For Long Essay Questions (LEQs):

LEQ Comparison Essay Structure:

Thesis (1 paragraph): State both similarities AND differences; preview your argument
Contextualization (1 paragraph): Broader historical context for Period 2
Body Paragraphs (3-4): Organize by categories (economy, labor, social structure, etc.) NOT by region
Each body paragraph: Make comparison within SAME category; provide specific evidence for BOTH sides
Complexity: Explain WHY differences existed; discuss nuance; consider change over time
Conclusion (optional): Synthesize—explain broader significance of similarities/differences

Key Phrases for Comparison Writing:

Use these phrases to signal comparison:

"In contrast..." / "Unlike..." / "Whereas..."
"Similarly..." / "Likewise..." / "Both... and..."
"While X developed..., Y instead..."
"A key difference was..." / "A notable similarity was..."
"However..." / "On the other hand..." / "Nevertheless..."

📝 Common Comparison Prompts You WILL See on the Exam

Practice these comparison questions—they appear FREQUENTLY!

1. Compare Spanish and British colonization of North America.

Focus on: goals (extraction vs. settlement), labor (encomienda vs. slavery), Native relations (incorporation vs. displacement)

2. Compare the economies of the New England and Chesapeake colonies.

Focus on: mixed economy vs. tobacco monoculture, labor systems, trade patterns

3. Compare the development of slavery in the Chesapeake and Lower South.

Focus on: gang labor vs. task system, demographics, crops, slave codes

4. Compare French and British relations with Native Americans.

Focus on: trade alliances vs. land conflicts, intermarriage vs. separation, cooperation vs. displacement

5. Compare social structures in New England and the Lower South.

Focus on: egalitarian vs. hierarchical, middle class vs. planter elite, racial hierarchies

6. Compare the Middle Colonies with other British colonial regions.

Focus on: ethnic/religious diversity, "breadbasket" economy, mix of labor systems

7. Compare the effects of the Great Awakening in different colonial regions.

Focus on: New Lights vs. Old Lights splits, impact on established churches, regional variations

8. Compare indentured servitude and slavery as labor systems.

Focus on: duration, legal status, demographics, transition from one to the other

💡 AP® Exam Tips for Topic 2.8

Master the comparison tables: Memorize key differences between regions (economy, labor, social structure, government)
Always explain WHY: Don't just list differences—explain WHY they existed (geography, climate, labor needs, settlement patterns)
Discuss significance: Explain EFFECTS of differences (led to sectional conflict, different political traditions, etc.)
Use specific evidence: Cite concrete examples (partus sequitur ventrem, Bacon's Rebellion, encomienda, task system)
Organize by category: In LEQs, compare within categories (labor systems, economies) NOT region by region
Include similarities AND differences: Most comparison prompts want BOTH
Practice the skill: Write out comparison SAQs from previous exams; time yourself
Connect to later periods: How did colonial differences lead to later conflicts? (Civil War, debates over federalism)
Use comparison signal words: "While...", "In contrast...", "Similarly...", "Unlike..."
Review ALL previous topics: Topic 2.8 synthesizes 2.1-2.7—you need to know everything!