Unit 2, Period 2: 1607–1754

Topic 2.7: Colonial Society and Culture

Themes: American and Regional Culture (ARC) | American and National Identity (NAT)

📚 Topic Overview

By 1754, the British colonies had developed a distinctive American culture and identity that balanced British influences with uniquely colonial experiences. This emerging identity was shaped by ethnic and religious diversity (pluralism), two major intellectual movements—the First Great Awakening (religious revival) and the Enlightenment (rational thinking)—and growing experiences with self-government. While colonists increasingly adopted British consumer goods and cultural practices (Anglicization), they simultaneously developed autonomous political communities based on local assemblies, town meetings, and a thriving transatlantic print culture. This dual process of becoming more "British" while also becoming distinctly "American" created tensions as colonial and imperial interests diverged over issues like trade restrictions, western expansion, frontier defense, and self-rule. These cultural, intellectual, and political developments laid crucial groundwork for the revolutionary ideology that would emerge after 1754.

🎯 Learning Objectives

Learning Objective H: Explain how and why the movement of a variety of people and ideas across the Atlantic contributed to the development of American culture over time.

Learning Objective I: Explain how and why the different goals and interests of European leaders and colonists affected how they viewed themselves and their relationship with Britain.

💡 Key Concepts

KC-2.2.I.A

The presence of different European religious and ethnic groups contributed to a significant degree of pluralism and intellectual exchange, which were later enhanced by the First Great Awakening and the spread of European Enlightenment ideas.

KC-2.2.I.B

The British colonies experienced a gradual Anglicization over time, developing autonomous political communities based on English models with influence from intercolonial commercial ties, the emergence of a transatlantic print culture, and the spread of Protestant evangelicalism.

KC-2.2.I.D

The goals and interests of European leaders and colonists at times diverged, leading to a growing mistrust on both sides of the Atlantic. Colonists, especially in British North America, expressed dissatisfaction over issues including territorial settlements, frontier defense, self-rule, and trade.

KC-2.2.I.E

Colonists' resistance to imperial control drew on local experiences of self-government, evolving ideas of liberty, and perceived corruption in the imperial system.

🌍 Pluralism: Ethnic & Religious Diversity

⚡ CRITICAL CONCEPT: Pluralism = the presence and acceptance of multiple ethnic and religious groups living together. This diversity made colonial America fundamentally different from Europe and created a culture of intellectual exchange.

Ethnic Diversity (Immigration Waves):

By 1755, nearly HALF of the white colonial population was non-English!

English: Still majority, especially in New England and Tidewater South; dominated political/economic elites
Scots-Irish (Ulster Scots): Presbyterian; fled Ireland seeking economic opportunity and religious freedom; settled frontier/backcountry regions; known for independence and suspicion of authority
Germans (Pennsylvania Dutch): Largest non-English group; fled religious persecution and war; concentrated in Pennsylvania; maintained language, customs, farming practices
Scottish Highlanders: Fled after failed Jacobite rebellions; settled North Carolina and Georgia
Dutch: Originally New Amsterdam (New York); remained influential in Hudson Valley
French Huguenots: Protestant refugees after Edict of Nantes revoked (1685); skilled artisans and merchants
Jews (Sephardic): Small communities in port cities (New York, Newport, Charleston)
Africans: Largest non-European group; forced migration; developed distinct African-American culture

Religious Diversity (Pluralism):

Colonial America had MORE religious diversity than anywhere in Europe!

Puritans/Congregationalists: Dominant in New England; established (tax-supported) churches
Anglicans (Church of England): Established church in most Southern colonies (Virginia, Carolinas); elite religion
Quakers (Society of Friends): Dominant in Pennsylvania and parts of New Jersey; pacifist; believed in spiritual equality
Presbyterians: Scottish and Scots-Irish; strong in Middle Colonies and frontier
Baptists: Growing rapidly, especially after Great Awakening; emphasized adult baptism
Methodists: Emerging denomination; emphasized personal salvation and moral living
Catholics: Tolerated in Maryland (originally Catholic haven); small communities elsewhere
Jews: Small congregations in port cities; generally tolerated for commercial value
German sects: Mennonites, Moravians, Dunkers—pacifist, communal groups in Pennsylvania

Effects of Pluralism:

Greater religious tolerance: No single church could dominate everywhere; practical toleration developed
Intellectual exchange: Different ideas competed in "marketplace of ideas"
Cultural mixing: Languages, foods, customs, architectural styles blended
Democratic tendencies: Multiple groups meant no single authority; power had to be negotiated
American identity emerging: "American" becoming distinct from any single European identity

🔥 The First Great Awakening (1730s-1740s)

⚠️ The Great Awakening is ESSENTIAL for APUSH! It was the first major movement to unite ALL colonies, helped create American identity, and influenced revolutionary ideology. This appears FREQUENTLY on the exam!

What Was the Great Awakening?

A massive religious revival movement that swept through ALL the colonies in the 1730s-1740s, emphasizing emotional, personal religious experience over formal ritual and traditional authority.

Context & Causes:

Declining church attendance: By 1730s, many colonists less religious; prosperity = materialism
Reaction to Enlightenment: Rationalism and science seemed cold; people wanted emotional connection to God
Dissatisfaction with established churches: Formal services felt lifeless; clergy seemed corrupt
Predestination concerns: Traditional Calvinist idea that only "elect" saved troubled many

Key Leaders & Preachers:

Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758):

Congregationalist minister in Northampton, Massachusetts
Famous sermon: "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God" (1741)
Used vivid, terrifying imagery—God holding sinners over hell like spiders over fire
Emphasized predestination but also individual conversion experience
Sparked revival in his congregation; people fainted, wept, cried out
Intellectual—influenced by John Locke and Isaac Newton

George Whitefield (1714-1770):

Anglican minister from England; most famous revivalist preacher
Itinerant preacher: Traveled throughout ALL colonies preaching
Dramatic preaching style—theatrical, emotional, passionate
Held open-air revivals attracting THOUSANDS (up to 30,000 people!)
Made seven tours of American colonies
First "celebrity" in American colonies—everyone knew his name
Benjamin Franklin heard him preach; impressed by his oratory despite skepticism

Gilbert Tennent & Others:

Presbyterian minister; inspired Edwards
Attacked "unconverted" ministers as hypocrites
Many other local preachers joined movement

Key Characteristics of the Movement:

Emotional, personal faith: Emphasized feeling over intellect; direct, personal relationship with God
Conversion experience: Individuals must be "born again"—dramatic spiritual transformation
Open-air preaching: Revivals held outdoors, in fields—not in churches
Itinerant ministers: Preachers traveled circuit, spreading revival
Democratic theology: Salvation available to ALL, not just "elect"; emphasized individual choice
Anti-authoritarian: Challenged established clergy and traditional church hierarchy

New Lights vs. Old Lights:

The Great Awakening split congregations:

New Lights (Pro-Revival): Embraced emotional revivalism; emphasized conversion experience; welcomed itinerant preachers; challenged traditional authority; formed new congregations and denominations
Old Lights (Anti-Revival): Opposed emotional excess; valued education and formal theology; defended established clergy; wanted order and tradition; suspicious of "enthusiasm"

Major Effects of Great Awakening:

Religious Effects:

Church membership surged: Thousands converted; church attendance increased dramatically
New denominations formed: Baptist and Methodist churches grew rapidly
Church splits: Congregations divided between New Lights and Old Lights
Greater religious diversity: Increased pluralism and tolerance
Weakened established churches: Anglican and Congregational authority declined

Social Effects:

Challenged authority: If clergy could be wrong, so could other authorities (government, elites)
Democratic ideas: Spiritual equality → ideas about political/social equality
Empowered common people: Anyone could have religious experience; not just elites
Women's participation: Women attended revivals, testified, joined churches in large numbers
African Americans: Some enslaved people converted; found hope in Christianity

Cultural/Intellectual Effects:

Promoted literacy: People wanted to read Bible for themselves
Strengthened print culture: Sermons published, newspapers spread news of revivals
Founded colleges: Princeton (1746), Dartmouth (1769), others—to train New Light ministers
Intercolonial connections: Created shared experience across colonies

Political Effects (Long-term):

FIRST truly intercolonial movement: United all colonies in shared experience
Created "American" identity: Sense of being American, not just Virginian or Bostonian
Questioned authority: If religious authorities could be challenged, why not political?
Democratic impulses: Ideas about individual rights and equality
Influenced Revolutionary ideology: Set precedent for questioning British authority

💡 The Enlightenment in Colonial America

The Enlightenment emphasized REASON, SCIENCE, and NATURAL RIGHTS over tradition and religious authority. It coexisted with (and sometimes competed with) the Great Awakening's emphasis on emotion and faith.

What Was the Enlightenment?

An 18th-century intellectual movement (also called "Age of Reason") that emphasized rational thinking, scientific inquiry, individual liberty, and natural rights. Originated in Europe but spread to colonies through books, immigrants, and educated elites.

Core Enlightenment Ideas:

Reason over tradition: Human reason and logic should guide decisions, not just tradition or authority
Scientific method: Observation, experimentation, evidence-based conclusions
Natural rights: All humans born with inherent rights (life, liberty, property)
Social contract: Government exists by consent of the governed; people can change unjust government
Progress and improvement: Society can improve through reason and education
Religious tolerance: Many Enlightenment thinkers embraced Deism or religious skepticism

Key European Enlightenment Thinkers (Influenced Americans):

John Locke (1632-1704): English philosopher; Two Treatises of Government; natural rights (life, liberty, property); social contract; right to revolution; HUGE influence on Jefferson and Declaration
Isaac Newton (1642-1727): English scientist; laws of motion and gravity; showed universe operates by natural laws, not divine intervention
Francis Bacon (1561-1626): English philosopher; developed scientific method
Voltaire (1694-1778): French writer; criticized church and government; advocated religious tolerance
Montesquieu (1689-1755): French political thinker; separation of powers; influenced Constitution
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): French philosopher; social contract; popular sovereignty

American Enlightenment Figure: Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790):

The BEST EXAMPLE of Enlightenment thinking in colonial America!

Scientist: Electricity experiments; lightning rod invention; studied weather, ocean currents
Inventor: Bifocals, Franklin stove, odometer, swim fins—practical applications of science
Writer/Publisher: Poor Richard's Almanack (1732-1758); Pennsylvania Gazette newspaper
Civic improver: Founded library, fire department, hospital, university (Penn)
Founded American Philosophical Society (1743): Promoted scientific knowledge and rational inquiry
Deist: Believed in God but emphasized reason over revelation
Self-made man: Rose from poverty through hard work and education—Enlightenment ideal

Deism (Enlightenment Religion):

Belief system embraced by many Enlightenment thinkers, including Franklin and Jefferson

Believed in God as creator ("watchmaker") who set universe in motion
Rejected miracles, divine intervention, organized religion
Emphasized reason and natural law over scripture and revelation
Morality based on reason, not religious doctrine
God doesn't interfere in human affairs—humans use reason to improve society

Effects of Enlightenment in Colonies:

Promoted scientific inquiry: Colonists conducted experiments, observed nature
Encouraged education: Founded colleges (College of Philadelphia/Penn); libraries; schools
Spread through print culture: Newspapers, books, pamphlets circulated ideas
Influenced political thought: Natural rights, social contract, consent of governed
Challenged traditional authority: Questioned religious and political hierarchies
Shaped revolutionary ideology: Jefferson's Declaration drew heavily on Locke

📰 Transatlantic Print Culture

Print culture = books, newspapers, pamphlets, and letters that circulated across the Atlantic Ocean, spreading ideas between Europe, Africa, Caribbean, and American colonies. ESSENTIAL to intellectual exchange!

Growth of Print Culture:

First colonial newspaper: Publick Occurrences Both Foreign and Domestick (1690)—shut down after one issue
Boston News-Letter (1704): First continuously published newspaper
By 1750s: Dozens of newspapers across colonies
Benjamin Franklin's Pennsylvania Gazette: Most influential colonial newspaper
Printing presses: Established in all major cities (Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Charleston)
Rising literacy rates: Highest in New England (90% men, 60% women); lowest in South

What Print Culture Spread:

Enlightenment ideas: Locke, Newton, Voltaire—political philosophy, science
Great Awakening sermons: Published and distributed; Edwards' and Whitefield's sermons widely read
Political news: Events in Britain, Europe, other colonies
Trade information: Prices, shipping schedules, business news
Political criticism: Cato's Letters (1720-1723)—British essays critiquing government corruption
Literature and culture: English books, colonial writing, poetry

Zenger Trial (1734-1735) - Freedom of the Press:

Landmark case establishing precedent for press freedom

John Peter Zenger: Printer of New York Weekly Journal
Published articles criticizing New York Governor William Cosby (corruption, abuse of power)
Arrested for libel (printing damaging falsehoods about government official)
Trial: Lawyer Andrew Hamilton argued truth should be defense against libel
Jury acquitted Zenger despite judge's instructions
Significance: Established precedent that truth is defense; protected criticism of government; early victory for freedom of press

🇬🇧 Anglicization: Becoming More "British"

Anglicization = the process by which colonies increasingly adopted English culture, customs, political institutions, and consumer goods. PARADOX: Colonists became more British while ALSO developing distinct American identity!

How Colonists Became More "British":

Consumer Culture (Material Anglicization):

Consumer Revolution: Colonists purchased British manufactured goods
Imported English furniture, dishware, textiles, clothing, tea
Followed English fashion trends—wigs, silk, fine fabrics
Built homes in Georgian architectural style (English style)
Adopted English social customs—tea ceremonies, formal dinners, balls
Displayed wealth through British goods—status symbols

Cultural Anglicization:

Read English literature, newspapers, books
Elite sent sons to England for education (Oxford, Cambridge)
Spoke English as dominant language (though others persisted)
Celebrated British holidays and traditions
Admired British culture as sophisticated and superior

Political Anglicization:

Colonial governments modeled on English Parliament
Adopted English common law and legal traditions
Colonists saw themselves as "Englishmen" with English rights
Valued English political traditions (representative government, trial by jury)

BUT... Simultaneously Developing Colonial Autonomy:

Even while becoming "British," colonists were creating distinctly American institutions:

Colonial assemblies: Gained power over taxation, spending; more democratic than Parliament
Town meetings: Direct democracy unique to New England
Intercolonial trade: Economic networks independent of Britain
Local print culture: Colonial newspapers, pamphlets created shared discourse
Distance from Britain: Practical autonomy in day-to-day governance
Salutary neglect: Lax enforcement of laws gave colonists freedom
Adapted institutions: English forms modified to fit colonial needs

⚡ Growing Tensions: Colonial vs. Imperial Interests

By mid-1700s, DIVERGING INTERESTS created growing mistrust between colonists and British officials. Colonists saw themselves as English subjects with rights; Britain saw them as subordinate subjects to be controlled and exploited.

Colonial Grievances (What Colonists Were Angry About):

1. Trade Restrictions (Mercantilism):

Navigation Acts: Required colonial trade through Britain; restricted markets
Enumerated goods: Valuable crops (tobacco, rice) could only go to Britain
Manufacturing restrictions: Wool Act, Hat Act, Iron Act—prevented colonial industries
Molasses Act (1733): High duties on non-British molasses hurt rum industry
Colonists responded with widespread smuggling and bribery

2. Territorial Settlements & Western Expansion:

Land-hungry colonists wanted to expand west into Native territories
British authorities tried to restrict westward movement (protect fur trade, avoid Indian wars)
Caused conflicts like Bacon's Rebellion (1676)—settlers vs. Governor Berkeley over Indian policy

3. Frontier Defense:

Who should pay for defending colonies from French and Native attacks?
Colonists wanted British military protection but didn't want to pay taxes for it
British felt colonists should contribute to their own defense
Created resentment on both sides

4. Self-Rule vs. Imperial Control:

Colonial assemblies: Colonists valued self-government through elected assemblies
British oversight: Crown and Parliament tried to reassert control
Dominion of New England (1686-1689): James II's attempt to consolidate colonies under single governor (Sir Edmund Andros); colonists HATED it; overthrown after Glorious Revolution
Conflicting views: Colonists saw assemblies as mini-Parliaments with rights; Britain saw them as subordinate bodies

How Colonists Saw Themselves:

As Englishmen with rights: Entitled to English liberties (representation, trial by jury, property rights)
Autonomous communities: Capable of self-government through assemblies and town meetings
Equal partners: Helping build British Empire, not subordinate subjects
Increasingly "American": Shared experiences (Great Awakening, frontier life) creating distinct identity

How Britain Saw Colonists:

As subjects, not equals: Subordinate to Parliament and Crown
Economic resources: Colonies existed to benefit British economy (mercantilism)
Second-class citizens: Colonists viewed as less sophisticated, less cultured than English
Required control: Needed oversight to prevent economic independence
Ungrateful: Colonists benefited from British protection but complained about costs

👥 Colonial Social Structure

Colonial society developed clear class hierarchies by mid-1700s, though MORE FLUID and LESS RIGID than European class systems. Region mattered—South most hierarchical, New England most egalitarian.

Social Classes (Top to Bottom):

1. GENTRY / ELITE (Top 5%):

Large landowners, wealthy merchants, high officials; owned slaves; British goods and education; dominated politics

2. MIDDLE CLASS (25-30%):

Professionals (lawyers, doctors), skilled artisans (blacksmiths, carpenters), prosperous farmers, shopkeepers; owned property; some participated in politics

3. YEOMAN FARMERS (40-50%):

Small independent farmers; owned land; worked it with family; subsistence farming; backbone of colonial society

4. URBAN LABORERS:

Wage workers, dockworkers, sailors, servants; no property; lived in cities; vulnerable to economic downturns

5. INDENTURED SERVANTS:

Temporary unfree labor (4-7 years); could gain freedom and property; declining by 1700

6. ENSLAVED AFRICANS (Bottom—~20% of population by 1750):

Chattel slavery; no rights; property; hereditary; concentrated in South but present in all regions

Regional Differences:

New England: Most egalitarian; fewer extremes; strong middle class; community-centered
Middle Colonies: Growing middle class; greatest social mobility; diverse
Southern Colonies: Most hierarchical; sharp divide between planter gentry and poor; slavery dominant

📝 Essential Key Terms & Concepts

Pluralism

Presence and acceptance of multiple ethnic and religious groups; created intellectual exchange

First Great Awakening (1730s-40s)

Religious revival emphasizing emotional personal faith; united colonies; challenged authority

Jonathan Edwards

Congregationalist preacher; "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God"; sparked Great Awakening

George Whitefield

Itinerant Anglican preacher; traveled all colonies; dramatic sermons; first "celebrity"

New Lights vs. Old Lights

Split during Great Awakening: New Lights embraced revival; Old Lights opposed emotional excess

Enlightenment

18th-century intellectual movement emphasizing reason, science, natural rights, social contract

John Locke

English philosopher; natural rights (life, liberty, property); social contract; right to revolution

Benjamin Franklin

Scientist, inventor, writer; embodied Enlightenment ideals; founded libraries, societies

Deism

Enlightenment belief: God created universe but doesn't intervene; reason over revelation

Transatlantic Print Culture

Books, newspapers, pamphlets circulating across Atlantic; spread ideas; connected colonies

Zenger Trial (1734-1735)

John Peter Zenger acquitted of libel; established truth as defense; freedom of press precedent

Anglicization

Process of colonies adopting English culture, goods, customs while developing American identity

Consumer Revolution

Colonists purchased British manufactured goods; displayed wealth through consumption

Salutary Neglect

British policy of loose enforcement of trade laws (~1690s-1763); allowed colonial autonomy

Colonial Assemblies

Elected legislative bodies in colonies; gained power over taxation; model of self-government

Cato's Letters (1720-1723)

British essays critiquing government corruption; widely read in colonies; influenced revolutionaries

Scots-Irish

Presbyterian immigrants from Ulster; settled frontier; independent, anti-authoritarian

Pennsylvania Dutch

German-speaking immigrants in Pennsylvania; maintained language and customs

Huguenots

French Protestant refugees after Edict of Nantes revoked (1685); skilled artisans

Dominion of New England (1686-1689)

James II's failed attempt to consolidate colonial control; governed by Sir Edmund Andros

💡 AP® Exam Tips for Topic 2.7

Great Awakening is HUGE: Know leaders (Edwards, Whitefield), effects (challenged authority, increased pluralism, united colonies)
Understand the PARADOX: Colonies became MORE British (Anglicization) while ALSO developing American identity
Compare Great Awakening vs. Enlightenment: Emotion/faith vs. reason/science—both challenged authority differently
Know key thinkers: Edwards, Whitefield, Franklin, Locke—be able to explain their ideas
Pluralism is key concept: Ethnic/religious diversity → tolerance → intellectual exchange
Print culture matters: Newspapers, pamphlets, books spread ideas; connected colonies; Zenger Trial
Growing tensions: Explain WHY colonial and imperial interests diverged (trade, territory, self-rule, defense)
Connect to Revolution: How did Great Awakening, Enlightenment, and self-government prepare colonists for independence?
Regional differences persist: New England, Middle, South still had distinct cultures despite shared movements
Practice comparison essays: "Compare effects of Great Awakening and Enlightenment on colonial society"