1. Flaw in the Reasoning ~16% Frequency Hard

What It Asks: Identify the logical error in the argument's reasoning.

Common Question Stems:

• "The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that it..."
• "The argument is vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it..."
• "Which of the following describes an error in the argument's reasoning?"
• "A flaw in the argument is that it..."

Strategy:

1. Identify the conclusion and premises
2. Determine what the author assumes
3. Identify what the author overlooks or fails to establish
4. Match to common flaw patterns (see below)
5. Eliminate answers that describe reasoning that isn't present

Common Flaws to Recognize:

• Correlation ≠ Causation: Assumes correlation proves causation
• Unrepresentative Sample: Generalizes from biased sample
• False Dichotomy: Assumes only two options exist
• Circular Reasoning: Uses conclusion as a premise
• Ad Hominem: Attacks person rather than argument
• Overlooking Alternatives: Fails to consider other possibilities
• Equivocation: Uses same word with different meanings
• Percent vs. Amount: Confuses percentage with absolute numbers

2. Must Be True / Inference ~14% Frequency Medium

What It Asks: Identify what must be true based on the stated information (no argument, just facts).

Common Question Stems:

• "If the statements above are true, which one must also be true?"
• "Which one can be properly inferred from the passage?"
• "The statements above, if true, best support which of the following?"
• "Which one must be false based on the information above?"

Strategy:

1. Note: These typically have NO argument, just fact sets
2. Accept all stated information as absolutely true
3. Look for what MUST be true, not what COULD be true
4. Correct answers are often conservative, modest statements
5. Eliminate answers that go beyond provided information
6. Watch for conditional logic (if/then) and their contrapositives

3. Strengthen ~14% Frequency Medium

What It Asks: Find information that makes the conclusion more likely to be true.

Common Question Stems:

• "Which one, if true, most strengthens the argument?"
• "Which one provides the most support for the conclusion?"
• "The argument is most strengthened if which one is true?"
• "Which one, if true, most justifies the conclusion?"

Strategy:

1. Identify the conclusion and premises
2. Determine the assumption (gap between evidence and conclusion)
3. Look for answers that support/confirm the assumption
4. The correct answer doesn't have to prove the conclusion, just make it more likely
5. Never attack the stated premises - they're accepted as true

4. Assumption (Necessary) ~10% Frequency Hard

What It Asks: Identify an unstated premise that the argument REQUIRES to be valid.

Common Question Stems:

• "Which one is an assumption required by the argument?"
• "The argument depends on assuming which of the following?"
• "The argument relies on which one of the following?"
• "Which one is an assumption on which the argument depends?"

Strategy:

1. Identify conclusion and premises
2. Find the logical GAP between evidence and claim
3. Pre-phrase what's missing
4. Use the Negation Test: Negate each answer - if it destroys the argument, it's necessary

5. Parallel Reasoning ~8% Frequency Very Hard

What It Asks: Find an argument with the same logical structure as the stimulus.

Common Question Stems:

• "Which one of the following exhibits a pattern of reasoning most similar to that in the argument above?"
• "The reasoning in which one is most similar to that in the argument above?"
• "Which one most closely parallels the reasoning in the argument above?"

Strategy:

1. Identify the logical structure (not content) of the stimulus
2. Note if argument is valid or invalid
3. Map the pattern: All A are B, X is A, therefore X is B
4. Match structure element by element
5. Eliminate answers with different structures
6. Content doesn't matter - only logical form matters

6. Weaken ~7% Frequency Medium

What It Asks: Find information that makes the conclusion less likely to be true.

Common Question Stems:

• "Which one, if true, most weakens the argument?"
• "Which one casts the most doubt on the conclusion?"
• "Which one most seriously undermines the argument?"
• "Which one calls into question the argument?"

Strategy:

1. Identify conclusion and premises
2. Determine the assumption
3. Look for answers that attack/undermine the assumption
4. The correct answer doesn't have to disprove, just make conclusion less likely
5. Never attack stated premises (they're accepted as true)
6. Often involves alternative explanations or contrary evidence

7. Method of Reasoning ~7% Frequency Hard

What It Asks: Describe HOW the argument makes its case (the argumentative technique).

Common Question Stems:

• "The argument proceeds by..."
• "Which one describes the technique of reasoning used above?"
• "The method of argument used is to..."
• "The argument does which one of the following?"

Common Methods to Recognize:

• Providing a counterexample to refute a claim
• Drawing an analogy between two situations
• Appealing to authority or expert opinion
• Citing statistical evidence or data
• Identifying a logical inconsistency
• Questioning an assumption
• Presenting alternative explanations

Strategy:

1. Focus on HOW the argument works, not WHAT it says
2. Describe the technique abstractly
3. Match to common argumentative methods
4. Eliminate answers describing techniques not present

8. Main Point / Conclusion ~7% Frequency Easy

What It Asks: Identify the primary conclusion of the argument.

Common Question Stems:

• "Which one most accurately expresses the main conclusion?"
• "The main point of the argument is that..."
• "The conclusion drawn in the argument above is that..."

Strategy:

1. Look for conclusion indicators (therefore, thus, so)
2. Ask "What is the author trying to prove?"
3. The main conclusion has support but doesn't support other claims
4. Test by asking "Why?" - the main conclusion is what others answer
5. Beware of intermediate conclusions that support the main point

9. Resolve the Paradox ~6% Frequency Medium

What It Asks: Explain an apparent contradiction or surprising result.

Common Question Stems:

• "Which one, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy?"
• "Which one most helps to explain the surprising result?"
• "Which one, if true, helps to reconcile the two findings?"

Strategy:

1. Identify the two facts that seem contradictory
2. The correct answer makes BOTH facts true simultaneously
3. Look for answers that provide additional information explaining the discrepancy
4. Don't eliminate either fact - accept both as true

10. Sufficient Assumption (Justify) ~6% Frequency Very Hard

What It Asks: Find a statement that, if added, makes the conclusion logically certain.

Common Question Stems:

• "The conclusion follows logically if which one is assumed?"
• "Which one, if assumed, enables the conclusion to be properly drawn?"
• "Which one, if assumed, allows the conclusion to be properly inferred?"
• "The conclusion can be properly inferred if which one is assumed?"

Strategy:

1. Identify the gap in the argument
2. Look for an answer that completely bridges the gap
3. The correct answer makes the argument 100% valid (airtight)
4. Sufficient assumptions are often stronger/broader than necessary assumptions
5. Test: Premises + Sufficient Assumption = Conclusion is guaranteed

11. Role of Statement (Argument Part) ~5% Frequency Medium

What It Asks: Identify the function of a specific statement in the argument.

Common Question Stems:

• "The claim that [statement] plays which one of the following roles?"
• "The statement that [statement] figures in the argument in which one of the following ways?"

Strategy:

1. Determine if the statement is a premise, conclusion, background, or objection
2. Identify what it supports or what supports it
3. Match to answer describing its structural role

12. Parallel Flaw ~3% Frequency Very Hard

What It Asks: Find an argument with the same logical flaw as the stimulus.

Common Question Stems:

• "The flawed pattern of reasoning in which one is most similar to that in the argument above?"
• "Which one contains reasoning that is most similar in its flawed reasoning to that in the argument above?"

Strategy:

1. Identify the specific flaw in the stimulus
2. Look for an argument with the same flaw (not just similar structure)
3. All answer choices should be flawed arguments
4. Match the type of flaw, not just invalidity in general

13. Point at Issue / Disagreement ~2% Frequency Medium

What It Asks: Identify what two speakers disagree about.

Common Question Stems:

• "The dialogue provides the most support for the claim that the two speakers disagree about..."
• "On the basis of their statements, [Speaker A] and [Speaker B] are committed to disagreeing about..."

Strategy:

1. The correct answer must have explicit support for both speakers' positions
2. One speaker says YES, the other says NO (or implies opposite)
3. Eliminate if you can't find evidence for both positions

14. Evaluate the Argument ~1-2% Frequency Hard

What It Asks: Identify a question that would help assess the argument's validity.

Common Question Stems:

• "The answer to which one would be most useful in evaluating the argument?"
• "It would be most important to determine which one in evaluating the argument?"

Strategy:

1. Identify the argument's assumption
2. The correct answer tests the assumption - one answer strengthens, opposite weakens
3. Apply the Variance Test: different answers to the question should affect argument strength differently

15. Principle Questions ~5-7% Combined Medium

Two Subtypes:

Principle (Identify): Find a general rule that governs/justifies the reasoning

• "Which principle, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning?"
• "The reasoning above most closely conforms to which one of the following principles?"

Principle (Apply): Apply a stated principle to specific situations

• "Based on the principle above, which one is most justified?"
• "Which one conforms to the principle stated above?"

Strategy:

1. For Identify: Extract the general rule from the specific case
2. For Apply: Match the specific case to the general rule
3. Ensure all elements of the principle/case align

1. Main Point / Main Idea Easy-Medium

What It Asks: Identify the central theme or primary idea of the passage.

Common Question Stems:

• "Which one most accurately expresses the main point of the passage?"
• "Which one best expresses the central idea of the passage?"
• "Which one describes the primary concern of the passage?"

Comparative Reading Variations:

• "Which one is central to both passages?"
• "Both passages seek an answer to which question?"

Strategy:

1. Focus on what the MAJORITY of the passage discusses
2. Look for the author's primary thesis or viewpoint
3. Eliminate answers that describe only part of the passage
4. The correct answer covers the whole passage, not just one paragraph

2. Primary Purpose / Function Medium

What It Asks: Identify WHY the author wrote the passage (the author's goal).

Common Question Stems:

• "The primary purpose of the passage is to..."
• "The author's main purpose in the passage is to..."
• "Which one most accurately describes what the passage is designed to do?"

Common Purposes:

• Critique or challenge a theory
• Explain a phenomenon
• Compare and contrast viewpoints
• Advocate for a position
• Describe a historical development

Strategy:

1. Answer choices use abstract verbs (explain, critique, advocate)
2. Focus on the author's intent, not just content
3. Consider the passage's structure and progression

3. Inference / Must Be True Medium-Hard

What It Asks: Identify what must be true or can be properly inferred from the passage.

Common Question Stems:

• "The passage most strongly supports which one of the following?"
• "Based on the passage, the author would be most likely to agree with which one?"
• "Which one can be properly inferred from the passage?"
• "It can be inferred from the passage that the author believes..."

Strategy:

1. The correct answer must be supported by passage text
2. Look for direct textual support, not outside knowledge
3. Correct answers are often modest, conservative statements
4. Eliminate answers that go beyond what's stated

4. Specific Detail / Recognition Easy

What It Asks: Find specific information explicitly stated in the passage.

Common Question Stems:

• "According to the passage, which one is true?"
• "The passage states which one of the following?"
• "Which one does the author explicitly mention?"
• "The passage includes information sufficient to answer which question?"

Strategy:

1. Return to the passage to locate specific information
2. The answer will closely match passage wording
3. These are "look-up" questions - verification, not interpretation

5. Function / Purpose of Detail Medium

What It Asks: Identify WHY the author included a specific detail or example.

Common Question Stems:

• "The author mentions [detail] primarily in order to..."
• "The function of the [paragraph/sentence] is to..."
• "The author discusses [topic] in order to..."

Strategy:

1. Understand the detail's role in the author's argument
2. Consider what point the detail supports
3. Look at surrounding context for clues

6. Tone / Attitude Medium

What It Asks: Identify the author's attitude or tone toward the subject.

Common Question Stems:

• "The author's attitude toward [topic] can best be described as..."
• "The tone of the passage is best characterized as..."
• "Which one best describes the author's opinion of [topic]?"

Common Tones:

• Skeptical, critical, disapproving
• Supportive, approving, enthusiastic
• Neutral, objective, analytical
• Cautiously optimistic, tentatively supportive

Strategy:

1. Look for evaluative language and word choice
2. Note qualifiers (may, might, possibly vs. clearly, certainly)
3. Eliminate extreme tones unless strongly supported

7. Structure / Organization Medium

What It Asks: Describe how the passage is organized or structured.

Common Question Stems:

• "Which one most accurately describes the organization of the passage?"
• "Which one best describes the structure of the passage?"
• "The passage proceeds by..."

Strategy:

1. Note the function of each paragraph
2. Identify logical progression (problem→solution, theory→critique→alternative)
3. Match to abstract structural descriptions

8. Strengthen / Weaken (Within Passage Context) Medium

What It Asks: Identify information that would strengthen or weaken a claim in the passage.

Common Question Stems:

• "Which one, if true, would most strengthen the author's argument?"
• "Which one most undermines the [viewpoint] described in the passage?"

Strategy:

1. Similar to LR Strengthen/Weaken questions
2. Identify the relevant claim or argument in the passage
3. Look for answer that makes it more/less likely

9. Comparative Reading Questions Medium-Hard

What It Asks: Questions about the relationship between two passages.

Common Question Types:

• Agreement/Disagreement: "The authors would be most likely to disagree about..."
• Relationship: "Passage B relates to Passage A by..."
• Shared Elements: "Both passages mention which one?"
• Different Emphasis: "Unlike Passage A, Passage B emphasizes..."

Strategy:

1. Read both passages noting similarities and differences
2. Track what each author says about shared topics
3. For disagreement questions, need explicit evidence from both