Unit 1, Period 1: 1491–1607

Topic 1.7: Causation in Period 1

Historical Thinking Skill: Causation

📚 Topic Overview

Topic 1.7 focuses on the critical historical thinking skill of causation—understanding cause-and-effect relationships throughout Period 1. This skill requires identifying WHY events happened (causes) and WHAT resulted from them (effects). For Period 1, you must explain both the causes of transatlantic voyages and their wide-ranging effects on Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans. Mastering causation means connecting short-term and long-term causes, recognizing multiple causes working together, and tracing effects across demographic, economic, social, and political dimensions. This skill is essential for success on SAQs, DBQs, and LEQs throughout the AP® exam.

🎯 Learning Objective

Explain the effects of the development of transatlantic voyages from 1491 to 1607.

🔍 Understanding Causation as a Historical Thinking Skill

⚡ Causation: The ability to identify, analyze, and evaluate the relationships between multiple historical causes and effects, distinguishing between short-term and long-term causes and effects.

Key Components of Causation:

Identify causes: What factors led to an event or development?
Identify effects: What resulted from an event or development?
Distinguish types of causes: Short-term (immediate triggers) vs. long-term (background conditions)
Evaluate significance: Which causes were most important? Which effects were most significant?
Recognize complexity: Multiple causes working together; multiple effects across different dimensions
Trace connections: How did one effect become the cause of something else?

For Period 1, Ask:

WHY did Europeans begin transatlantic voyages? (Causes)
WHAT happened as a result of these voyages? (Effects)
HOW did these effects transform societies on both sides of the Atlantic?
WHICH causes were most significant?
HOW did short-term causes combine with long-term conditions?

🚢 CAUSES: Why Did Europeans Begin Transatlantic Voyages?

💰 Economic Causes (GOLD)

Desire for wealth: Europeans wanted gold, silver, and precious metals
Spice trade: Asian spices (pepper, cinnamon, cloves) were extremely valuable
Ottoman blockade: Ottoman Empire controlled eastern Mediterranean routes, making Asian goods expensive
Mercantilism: Economic theory drove nations to accumulate wealth through favorable trade
Search for new trade routes: Find direct water route to Asia to bypass middlemen
New markets: Desire to find new places to trade and extract resources

⛪ Religious Causes (GOD)

Spread Christianity: Europeans felt religious duty to convert non-Christians
Catholic missionary zeal: Spain and Portugal especially motivated after Reconquista (1492)
Protestant-Catholic rivalry: After Reformation (1517), competition intensified
Crusading mentality: Extended medieval crusades to New World
Religious conversion used to justify conquest

🏆 Political Causes (GLORY)

National rivalry: Intense competition among Spain, Portugal, France, England for power
Imperial ambitions: Claiming territories increased national prestige and power
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494): Spain-Portugal competition led to dividing New World
Personal glory: Explorers sought fame, titles, wealth, social advancement
Strategic advantage: Colonies provided military bases and geopolitical leverage

⚙️ Technological & Contextual Causes

Improved ships: Caravels with lateen sails could sail against wind
Navigation tools: Compass, astrolabe, better maps made long voyages safer
Gunpowder weapons: Military advantage over Native populations
Renaissance: Revival of learning fostered curiosity and innovation
Centralized nation-states: Strong monarchies could fund expensive expeditions
Printing press (1450s): Spread geographic knowledge and travel accounts

💥 EFFECTS: What Resulted from Transatlantic Voyages?

⚡ Transatlantic voyages initiated the most significant transformation in world history since the Agricultural Revolution. Effects were demographic, economic, social, cultural, political, and environmental.

📉 Demographic Effects: Population Collapse

PRIMARY EFFECT: Catastrophic demographic collapse of Native American populations

Causes of Population Decline:

Disease (PRIMARY CAUSE): Smallpox, measles, influenza, typhus, whooping cough
Virgin soil epidemics: No prior exposure = no immunity = mortality rates up to 90%
Forced labor: Encomienda system, overwork, malnutrition
Warfare: Armed conflicts with European colonizers
Disruption: Loss of traditional food sources, displacement from lands

Effects of Population Collapse:

Entire communities and cultures wiped out
Made European military conquest much easier
Created severe labor shortages
Led Europeans to turn to African slave trade
Loss of oral traditions, languages, knowledge systems
Disrupted political structures and social organization

🔄 The Columbian Exchange: Ecological & Economic Effects

From Americas → Europe/Africa:

Crops: Maize (corn), potatoes, tomatoes, beans, squash, cacao, tobacco, cassava
Effect on Europe: New crops dramatically increased food supply and population growth
Potatoes: Became staple in Ireland and Northern Europe
Maize: Spread to Africa and Asia; supported population growth
Silver: Potosí mines (Peru) flooded Europe with silver; fueled global trade
Gold: Aztec and Inca wealth enriched Spanish treasury

From Europe/Africa → Americas:

Animals: Horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, chickens
Horses transformed: Plains Native American cultures—hunting, warfare, mobility
Crops: Wheat, rice, sugar cane, coffee, citrus fruits
Sugar: Led to plantation agriculture and intensified African slave trade
Diseases: Smallpox, measles, influenza (devastating to Natives)
Technology: Metal tools, guns, gunpowder

Long-Term Economic Effects:

Created first truly global economy—Atlantic World connected Europe, Africa, Americas
European population growth fueled by American crops
Rise of commercial capitalism and mercantilism
Plantation systems created demand for enslaved African labor
Silver from Americas linked global trade networks (Spain → China)

👥 Social & Cultural Effects

Mestizaje (Racial Mixing):

Intermarriage between Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans
Created complex racial hierarchies (casta system in Spanish colonies)
Mestizos (Spanish-Native), Mulatos (Spanish-African), Zambos (Native-African)
New hybrid cultures emerged—blending of traditions, languages, religions

Cultural Syncretism:

Blending of religious practices—Catholicism mixed with indigenous beliefs
Fusion of music, art, cuisine, languages
African cultural retention despite slavery—music, dance, spiritual practices
Created unique colonial cultures distinct from European origins

Cultural Clashes:

Divergent worldviews on religion, land ownership, gender roles, family structures
European attempts to suppress Native American and African spiritual practices
Missions established to forcibly convert indigenous peoples
Native resistance to cultural erasure—maintaining languages and traditions

⚖️ Political Effects

European Imperial Expansion:

Spain built massive empire—Mexico, Central/South America, Caribbean, parts of North America
Portugal claimed Brazil and established trading posts in Africa and Asia
France focused on Canada and fur trade
England began colonization later (Jamestown 1607)

Intensified European Rivalries:

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) attempted to divide New World between Spain and Portugal
Other powers (England, France, Netherlands) ignored treaty
Competition for colonies and resources fueled European wars
Colonial wealth strengthened European nation-states

Loss of Native Political Sovereignty:

Spanish conquest destroyed Aztec and Inca empires
European settlers displaced Native Americans from traditional lands
Native political structures disrupted by disease, warfare, and forced labor
Some Native groups formed alliances with Europeans to resist rivals

⛓️ Labor System Effects

Encomienda system: Spanish forced Native American labor to extract resources
Mission system: Established to convert and control Native populations
Atlantic Slave Trade intensified: Native population collapse → demand for African labor
Plantation agriculture: Sugar, tobacco, rice cultivation required massive labor forces
Chattel slavery: Enslaved Africans treated as property; hereditary, lifelong
Created foundation for racialized labor systems lasting centuries

🔗 Major Cause-Effect Chains in Period 1

Understanding how causes and effects link together:

Chain 1: Technology → Exploration → Contact

Cause: Maritime technology improvements (caravels, compass, better maps)
↓
Effect/New Cause: Long ocean voyages became possible
↓
Effect/New Cause: Europeans reached Americas (Columbus 1492)
↓
Effect: Sustained contact between Eastern and Western Hemispheres initiated

Chain 2: Disease → Population Collapse → Labor Shortage → Slavery

Cause: Europeans brought Old World diseases (smallpox)
↓
Effect/New Cause: Native Americans had no immunity → 90% population collapse
↓
Effect/New Cause: Severe labor shortages in Spanish colonies
↓
Effect/New Cause: Europeans turned to African slave trade
↓
Effect: Atlantic Slave Trade intensified; millions of Africans forcibly transported

Chain 3: Columbian Exchange → Economic Transformation

Cause: Contact initiated transfer of crops, animals, diseases
↓
Effect/New Cause: American crops (potatoes, maize) reached Europe
↓
Effect/New Cause: European population increased due to improved nutrition
↓
Effect: Larger population enabled further colonization and economic expansion

Chain 4: Economic Motives → Exploitation → Wealth → More Competition

Cause: Europeans sought gold, silver, and trade routes
↓
Effect/New Cause: Spanish conquered Aztec and Inca empires
↓
Effect/New Cause: Massive silver extraction (Potosí) enriched Spain
↓
Effect/New Cause: Spanish wealth fueled European economy and global trade
↓
Effect: Other European nations intensified colonial competition

Chain 5: Divergent Worldviews → Cultural Conflict → Resistance

Cause: Europeans and Natives held different views on land, religion, gender
↓
Effect/New Cause: Misunderstandings and conflicts over land ownership
↓
Effect/New Cause: Europeans attempted to suppress Native cultures and religions
↓
Effect: Native Americans resisted through warfare, alliances, and cultural preservation

📝 How to Analyze Causation for the AP® Exam

Step-by-Step Process:

1. Identify the historical development or event

Example: "Explain the effects of transatlantic voyages from 1491 to 1607."

2. List multiple causes (if analyzing causes)

Economic (gold, spices), Religious (spread Christianity), Political (rivalry), Technological (caravels, compass)

3. Distinguish short-term vs. long-term causes

Short-term: Columbus's 1492 voyage, Ottoman blockade
Long-term: Renaissance curiosity, mercantilism, rise of nation-states

4. List multiple effects across dimensions

Demographic: Population collapse
Economic: Columbian Exchange, plantation systems
Social: Mestizaje, cultural syncretism
Political: European empires, Native sovereignty loss

5. Distinguish short-term vs. long-term effects

Short-term: Immediate disease outbreaks, military conquest
Long-term: Global economy, racial hierarchies lasting centuries, African diaspora

6. Evaluate relative significance

Which cause was MOST important? Which effect was MOST significant?
Example: Disease was the PRIMARY cause of Native population decline (not just warfare or exploitation)

7. Trace connections between causes and effects

Show how one thing led to another: Disease → population collapse → labor shortage → African slavery

📖 Sample Causation Analysis

Question: Explain the effects of the development of transatlantic voyages from 1491 to 1607.

Strong Answer (includes multiple effects with specific evidence):

"Transatlantic voyages from 1491 to 1607 produced transformative effects across demographic, economic, and social dimensions. Demographically, contact initiated the Columbian Exchange, which brought European diseases like smallpox to the Americas. Native Americans, having no prior immunity to these diseases, experienced catastrophic population collapse—estimates suggest up to 90% mortality. This demographic disaster weakened Native societies and facilitated Spanish conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires. Economically, the Columbian Exchange transferred valuable crops in both directions: American maize and potatoes reached Europe, increasing food supplies and fueling population growth, while European sugar cane came to the Americas, establishing plantation agriculture. The resulting labor shortages, combined with Native population decline, caused Europeans to intensify the Atlantic Slave Trade, forcibly transporting millions of Africans. Spanish extraction of silver from Potosí enriched Spain and integrated the Americas into global trade networks. Socially and culturally, contact produced mestizaje (racial mixing between Europeans, Natives, and Africans), creating new hybrid populations and the Spanish casta system that organized colonial society by racial hierarchy. These voyages thus reshaped societies on both sides of the Atlantic, creating an interconnected Atlantic World that would shape the next three centuries of American history."

Why This Answer Works:

✓ Identifies multiple effects across different dimensions
✓ Provides specific evidence (smallpox, Potosí, maize, plantation agriculture)
✓ Shows causation chains (disease → population collapse → labor shortage → slavery)
✓ Explains significance and connections
✓ Uses proper historical terminology

📝 Essential Key Terms for Causation

Causation

Historical thinking skill: analyzing cause-and-effect relationships

Transatlantic Voyages

European journeys across Atlantic Ocean starting 1492; initiated contact

Demographic Collapse

Catastrophic Native American population decline (up to 90%) from disease

Virgin Soil Epidemic

Disease outbreak in population with no prior exposure; extremely high mortality

Columbian Exchange

Transfer of plants, animals, diseases, people, ideas between hemispheres post-1492

Atlantic World

Interconnected system linking Europe, Africa, Americas through trade and migration

Short-Term Cause

Immediate trigger or event that directly leads to outcome

Long-Term Cause

Background conditions or trends that set stage for events

💡 AP® Exam Tips for Causation (Topic 1.7)

Practice identifying causes vs. effects: Know which is which in any question
Always provide multiple causes/effects: Never give just one—show complexity
Use specific evidence: "Smallpox" not just "disease"; "Potosí silver" not just "wealth"
Show cause-effect chains: Trace how one thing led to another (Disease → population collapse → slavery)
Distinguish short-term vs. long-term: Questions often ask for this specifically
Cover multiple dimensions: Demographic, economic, social, political, cultural effects
Explain WHY causes matter: Don't just list—explain significance and connections
Memorize the major causal chains: Disease chain, Columbian Exchange chain, labor system chain
Use this skill across all periods: Causation appears on SAQs, DBQs, and LEQs

🎓 Period 1 (1491-1607) Summary: The Big Picture

Period 1 witnessed the collision of three worlds—Europe, Africa, and the Americas—creating transformations that would shape the next 500 years of history. Understanding causation in this period means recognizing:

BEFORE contact: Native Americans developed diverse, complex societies adapted to varied environments over millennia
WHY exploration happened: European economic ambitions, religious zeal, political rivalries, and technological advances drove transatlantic voyages
WHAT contact caused: Demographic collapse from disease, Columbian Exchange, economic transformation, cultural mixing and conflict, imperial expansion, and intensified African slavery
HOW societies changed: Both sides of the Atlantic transformed—Europeans gained wealth and power, Native Americans lost population and sovereignty, Africans were forced into diaspora
LASTING EFFECTS: Racial hierarchies, global capitalism, colonial systems, and cultural syncretism that continue to shape modern America

📚 AP® U.S. History Unit 1, Topic 1.7 Study Notes | Period 1: 1491–1607

✅ Unit 1 Complete! You've mastered all topics for Period 1. Practice causation with SAQs and DBQs!