⚡ European nations' efforts to explore and conquer the New World stemmed from a search for new sources of wealth, economic and military competition, and a desire to spread Christianity.

💰 GOLD: Economic Motivations

Search for New Sources of Wealth:

• Gold and Silver: Europeans desperately wanted precious metals to increase national wealth
• Spices and Luxury Goods: Asian spices (pepper, cinnamon, cloves) were extremely valuable
• Direct Trade Routes to Asia: Sought to bypass expensive Ottoman-controlled land routes
• New Markets: Hoped to find new trading partners and resources
• Raw Materials: Timber, furs, fish, and agricultural products

Mercantilism:

• Definition: Economic theory that national power depends on accumulating gold/silver and maintaining favorable trade balance
• Export more than you import → wealth accumulation
• Colonies provide raw materials and captive markets for manufactured goods
• Zero-sum mentality: One nation's gain is another's loss
• Drove European competition for colonies and trade monopolies

Joint-Stock Companies:

• Businesses owned by investors who shared profits and losses
• Pooled resources to finance expensive, risky overseas ventures
• Spread financial risk among many investors
• Examples: Virginia Company (Jamestown), British East India Company
• Made large-scale colonization financially possible

⛪ GOD: Religious Motivations

Spreading Christianity:

• Missionary Zeal: Europeans felt a religious duty to convert non-Christians
• Catholic vs. Protestant Competition: After the Reformation (1517), religious divisions intensified exploration
• Spain and Portugal: Strongly Catholic; spread Catholicism through missions
• Reconquista Legacy: Spain expelled Muslims (1492); extended crusading mentality to New World
• Missionaries accompanied conquistadors and colonizers
• Mission system established to convert and "civilize" Native Americans

Religious Justifications for Conquest:

• Papal Bulls: Pope granted Spain and Portugal rights to conquer "pagan" lands
• Doctrine of Discovery: Christian rulers had right to claim non-Christian lands
• Religious conversion used to justify colonization and exploitation
• Belief in European Christian superiority over indigenous religions

🏆 GLORY: Political/Nationalistic Motivations

Economic and Military Competition:

• National Rivalry: Intense competition among Spain, Portugal, England, France, and Netherlands
• Strategic Advantage: Colonies provided military bases, naval power, and geopolitical leverage
• Imperial Prestige: Size of empire = national greatness and power
• Fear of Being Left Behind: If rivals claimed territories first, a nation would lose opportunities
• Building global empires demonstrated power to other European nations

Personal Glory for Explorers:

• Fame, titles, and noble status for successful explorers
• Land grants (encomiendas) and wealth from conquered territories
• Social advancement—explorers often from lower nobility seeking fortune
• Conquistadors became legends (Cortés, Pizarro, Columbus)

💡 The Renaissance & Technological Advances

Renaissance (14th-17th Centuries):

• Revival of classical learning; emphasis on humanism, science, and exploration
• Started in Italy (~1450), spread throughout Europe
• Fostered curiosity, innovation, and willingness to challenge old ideas
• Printing press (1450s) spread geographic knowledge and exploration accounts

Maritime Technology Improvements:

• Caravel: Portuguese ship with lateen (triangular) sails; could tack against wind; highly maneuverable
• Multiple Masts: Increased speed and cargo capacity
• Magnetic Compass: (From China via Arabs) Enabled navigation without visible landmarks
• Astrolabe: Measured latitude by calculating angle of sun/stars
• Improved Maps & Charts: Better understanding of geography and currents
• Gunpowder Weapons: (From China) Gave military advantage over Native populations

👑 Rise of Centralized Nation-States

• From Feudalism to Monarchy: Power consolidating under strong kings and queens
• Spain Unified (1492): Ferdinand and Isabella completed Reconquista; expelled Muslims/Jews
• Strong Central Governments: Monarchs controlled resources to fund expensive expeditions
• National Treasuries: Could finance voyages and military operations
• Competition between nations drove exploration funding

🚫 Ottoman Empire Blocked Eastern Routes

• Ottoman Turks controlled eastern Mediterranean and traditional Silk Road routes
• Made Asian goods extremely expensive for Europeans (many middlemen)
• Forced Europeans to seek alternative water routes to Asia
• Portuguese sailed around Africa; Spanish sailed west across Atlantic

Background:

• Goal: Find westward sea route to Asia (Indies) for spice trade
• Sponsor: King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain
• Ships: Niña, Pinta, Santa María (caravels)
• Italian explorer (Cristoforo Colombo/Christopher Columbus) sailing for Spain

The Journey:

• Sailed west from Spain (August 3, 1492)
• Landed in Bahamas on October 12, 1492 (San Salvador/Guanahani)
• Thought he reached Asia—called indigenous people "Indians"
• Explored Caribbean islands including Hispaniola and Cuba
• Made four total voyages (1492, 1493, 1498, 1502)

Impact:

• Opened sustained contact between Eastern and Western Hemispheres
• Sparked European race to claim territories in the Americas
• Initiated Columbian Exchange
• Led to Spanish colonization and conquest
• Established Spain as early leader in New World exploration

🇪🇸 Spain: Conquest and Extraction

Strategy:

• Military Conquest: Used conquistadors to defeat and subjugate Native empires
• Resource Extraction: Focused on mining gold and silver (Potosí, Mexico)
• Large Settlements: Established cities, plantations, and missions
• Encomienda System: Forced Native labor under Spanish masters
• Mission System: Catholic missionaries converted Natives; established missions throughout territories

Areas Explored/Claimed:

• Caribbean islands, Mexico, Central America, South America (except Brazil)
• Florida, Southwest US (New Mexico, Arizona, Texas, California)
• First permanent US settlement: St. Augustine, Florida (1565)

🇵🇹 Portugal: Eastern Route and Brazil

Strategy:

• Eastern Focus: Pioneered route around Africa to reach Asia
• Trading Posts: Established coastal trading stations, not large inland colonies
• Spice Trade: Dominated Asian spice trade routes

Areas Explored/Claimed:

• West African coast, Indian Ocean, East Indies (Indonesia)
• Brazil (1500)—only major Portuguese colony in Americas
• Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided New World between Spain and Portugal

🇫🇷 France: Fur Trade and Alliances

Strategy:

• Fur Trade Focus: Established lucrative beaver fur trade with Native Americans
• Native Alliances: Built cooperative relationships; intermarriage common
• Limited Settlement: Fewer large colonies; trading posts instead
• Catholic Missions: Jesuits worked to convert Natives but more accommodating than Spanish

Areas Explored/Claimed:

• Canada (St. Lawrence River region), Great Lakes, Mississippi River Valley
• Quebec (1608), Montreal, Louisiana Territory
• Focused on northern regions rich in fur-bearing animals

🏴󠁧󠁢󠁥󠁮󠁧󠁿 England: Late Start, Settler Colonies

Strategy:

• Slower to Start: Focused on internal issues (English Reformation, conflicts with Spain)
• Joint-Stock Companies: Private investors funded colonization (Virginia Company)
• Settler Colonies: Families emigrated to establish permanent communities
• Economic Diversity: Agriculture, trade, fishing—not just resource extraction

Areas Explored/Claimed:

• Atlantic Coast of North America (Virginia to Maine)
• Roanoke Colony (1587)—"Lost Colony"—failed early attempt
• Jamestown (1607)—first permanent English settlement
• Would later dominate eastern seaboard

Terms:

• Drew imaginary line through Atlantic Ocean
• Spain: Everything west of line (most of Americas)
• Portugal: Everything east of line (Africa, Brazil, Asia)
• Mediated by Pope Alexander VI (Spanish)

Significance:

• Demonstrated European arrogance—divided lands without consulting inhabitants
• Explains why Brazil speaks Portuguese while rest of Latin America speaks Spanish
• Other European powers (England, France, Netherlands) ignored treaty
• Intensified competition among European nations