This is an important booklet to support your studies and revision. You will need to know all of the information in the revision guide and the examples and case studies in here. On each page you will find the example or case study information and some practice questions.
For each example and case study there are some facts and figures you need to be aware of and learn and use in exam answers.
It is important to note:
The words ‘example’ and ‘case study’ are important. In the booklet if it is called an ‘example’ then that is the wording that will be used in exam questions. So you must use the correct example.
In the booklet if it is called a ‘case study’ then that is the wording that will be used in exam questions. So you must use the correct case study.
Example
Example
Example
Example questions:
Using an example explain how tourism can reduce the development gap – 6 marks
Assess the effectiveness of tourism in reducing the development gap in a LIC or NEE you have studied – 9 marks
Example
Example
Case Study
Newly Emerging Economy (Rio, Brazil)
Why is Rio important?
- Where is Rio?
- Rio is a large coastal city located on the South-East coast of Brazil
- Rio is important nationally because…..
- Second largest city in Brazil
- Main tourist destination – Christ the Redeemer and the Carnival
- Population of approximately 6 million people
- Second largest city of industrial production as well as its financial and service industries (chemicals, pertroleum, processed foods, pharmaceuticals, textiles, clothing and furniture).
- Rio is important internationally because…
- Host the 2016 Olympics and Para Olympics
- Major oil reserves and industrial powerhouse
- Largest economy in Latin America
Why is Rio growing?
- Rural-to-urban migration – people moving from the countryside to the city
- Natural increase – people having more babies. As more people live in towns and cities there will be an increase in births
| Push Factors | Pull Factors |
| Poor healthcare | Good healthcare |
| No jobs | Jobs |
| Poor sanitation | Good sanitation |
| Drought | Clean water |
| War | Access to food |
| No food | No crime |
| Poor housing | Protection from persecution |
What opportunities has urban growth created?
| Social opportunities | Economic opportunities |
| Sick children can get treated. | Easier to get permits for travel and business |
| Anti-biotics are available in the hospitals for babies | Lots of people in the city to sell goods to |
| Children can go to school and get qualifications for the future | Consistent electricity supply so machines always run making it easier to make money |
| Water is cleaner in the city | New industrial areas (Santa Cruz) – this has attracted lots businesses and industry such as sawmills |
| Satellite TV and good electricity supply | New businesses like sawmills cause new businesses to set up such as paper shop and a machine repair business |
| Access to good schools and university |
What challenges has urban growth created?
- Health care
- Challenges:
- Only 55% of the city had a local family health clinic
- Services for pregnant women are very poor
- Solutions:
- Many favelas are inaccessible on steep slopes and crowded – doctors took health kits to each house and tested for 20 diseases and treated them
- Infant mortality decreased
- Challenges:
- Education
- Challenges:
- Only half of children above the age of 14 go to school
- School enrolment is low because
- A shortage of nearby schools
- A lack of money and the need to work
- A shortage of teachers
- Low pay and poor training for teachers
- Solutions:
- Encourage local people to volunteer to help in school
- Give grants to poor kids
- Make money available for free lessons in volleyball & squash in the favelas
- Challenges:
- Water supply
- Challenges:
- 12% of people in Rio do not have access to running water
- 37% of water is lost through leaky pipes
- Solutions:
- 7 new treatment plants built between 1998 and 2014
- Over 300km of pipes were laid
- By 2014 95% of population had a mains water supply
- Challenges:
- Energy
- Challenges:
- The whole city suffers frequent blackouts
- Made worse during the world cup and the Olympics
- Many people in the poorest parts get their electricity illegally – this is risky and unsafe
- Solutions:
- Installing 60km of new power lines
- Building a new nuclear generator
- Developing the new Simplicio hydro-electric complex which will increase Rio’s supply of electricity by 30%
- Challenges:
Effects of economic growth
- Rio provides 6% of all employment in Brazil
- Lots of jobs in service industries – finance, tourism and retail
- Lots of jobs in manufacturing – steel, oil with associated import & export
- Unemployment
- Big recession in 2015 – increased unemployment and with high taxes led to riots
- 20% unemployment in the favelas
- Lots people in the informal economy – not regulated & taxed but low paid
- Crime
- Pacifying Police Units (UPPs) were established to reclaim favelas from drug dealers
- Police have taken control of crime-dominated Complexo do Alemao and 30 smaller favelas
Air pollution
- Problems
- Heavy traffic and congestion on roads causes a build-up of exhaust fumes
- Steep mountains – roads can only be built on coastal lowlands
- Tunnels are need to connect different areas of the city
- 40% increase in the number of cars
- Solutions
- Expansion of the metro system
- New toll roads to reduce congestion
- Make coast roads one-way during rush hours to improve traffic flow
Water pollution
- Problems
- Ends up on the beaches – could put of tourists and the country loses vital income
- 55 rivers heavily polluted
- 200 tonnes of raw sewage enters the bay every day
- Solutions
- 12 new sewage works have been built since 2004 at a cost of US$ 68 million
- Ships fined for discharging fuel into the bay illegally
- 5km of new sewage pipes have been installed around badly polluted areas
Waste pollution
- Problems
- Biggest problems in the favelas
- Built on steep slopes with few proper roads – difficult for waster collection trucks to access
- Dumped in the streets and water sources – causes diseases like cholera and encourages rats
- Solutions
- Power plant set up to make methane from rotting rubbish – 30 tonnes of rubbish a
day makes enough electricity for 1000 homes
- Power plant set up to make methane from rotting rubbish – 30 tonnes of rubbish a
Characteristics and problems of squatter settlements
- settlements are unplanned so the houses do not have basic infrastructure such as sanitation, piped water, electricity and road access
- houses are made of any material available nearby – corrugated iron, pieces of board – haphazardly assembled to provide a basic shelter
- houses have a simple layout that may have a living area separate from a sleeping area
- parents and large families inhabit a small shack which is often overcrowded and the squatter settlements are very overcrowded
- there are no toilets, water must be collected from a nearby source – often at a cost – and carried back
- rubbish is not collected and the area quickly degenerates into a place of filth and disease
- the inhabitants tend to create poorly paid jobs where the income is unreliable or they work in the less well-paid jobs part of the formal sector
- quality of life is poor; the housing and environment are largely responsible for this
- the residents have very little money so cannot improve their homes or environments
- crime is a problem, children often do not go to school, the family lives on top of each other, there is no privacy, disease is rife and life is one of trying to survive from one day
How can we improve squatter settlements?
Self-help occurs where local authorities support the residents of the squatter settlements in improving their homes. This involves the improvements outlined above, but it is more organised. There is cooperation between residents to work together and remove rubbish. There is also cooperation from local authority, which offers grants, cheap loans and possibly materials to encourage improvements to take place. Standpipes are likely to be provided for access to water supply and sanitation. Collectively, the residents, with help from the local authority, may begin to build health centres and schools. Legal ownership of the land is granted to encourage improvements to take place, marking an acceptance of the housing.
Site and service schemes are a more formal way of helping squatter settlements residents. Land is identified for the scheme. The infrastructure is laid in advance of settlement, so that water, sanitation and electricity are properly supplied in individually marked plots. People then build their homes using whatever materials they can afford at the time. They can add to and improve the structure if finances allow later.
Case Study
Cities in the UK: London
- The UK is one of the most urbanised countries in the world
- The UK underwent urbanisation in the 19th Century
- The south and east of London is densely populated with more than 500 people per KM squared
- The north and west is sparsely populated with less than 10 people per KM
Where is London located?
- South-east of England
- South of Oxford
- North of Brighton
What factors were important to London’s success?
- The Thames is a tidal river. At high tide, ships were able to navigate up the river to London and the city became a port
- London was built at the lowest bridging point on the Thames – the widest point on the river where it was possible to build a bridge
Why did London grow?
- New docks meant the city could trade with different countries
- The ports/docks declined towards the end of the 20th Century
- Main hub for UK transport networks – road and rail
- Heathrow and Gatwick are close by – the UK’s major airports
- It is an international centre for
- Media & communication networks
- Education, including renowned universities and research
- Legal and medical facilities
- One of the two most important financial centres in the world
- Culture, entertainment and tourism
How has London’s population changed?
- London’s population has grown rapidly
- It reached a peak of 8 million in 1931
- It decreased during the second World War
- It declined in 1981 as people moved to the countryside
- It is now rapidly growing due to migration
Changes in London:
Social & Economic opportunities (these are good things)
Social and economic opportunities
Traffic congestion:
- Traffic congestion is a condition on road networks that occurs as use increases, and is characterized by slower speeds, longer trip times, and increased vehicular queueing.
Problems caused by traffic congestion:
Solutions to traffic congestion:
- Park and ride schemes
- Park and ride schemes such as Colwick racecourse and Phoenix road
- For park and ride schemes people park their car in a car park outside of the city centre and then catch a bus to the city centre
- Park and ride schemes means there are less cars in the city centre
- Trams
- Develop the tram network into areas such as West Bridgford and Sherwood
- A tram can fit more people in than a car which means there are less cars on the road thus potentially reducing congestion
- Pedestrianisation
- Pedestrianisation – concreting the roads in the city centre
- Areas of Nottingham such as Market Square have been pedestrianised, which will exclude cars so therefore reducing traffic congestion
- Cycle lanes
- Nottinghamshire has 650 miles of cycle lanes and is adding more
- If you have more cycle lanes which are safe from other vehicles; people may be more willing to travel by bike this reducing the number of cars on the road
- Buses
- Improving the reliability of Nottingham’s buses which will make them more attractive to drivers so use them more.
How are they improving transport systems?
- Population will increase by 60% by 2050
- Crossrail is a new, east-west rail route across London
- It will run through tunnels underneath the city
Benefits of Crossrail – Social and economic opportunities
Environmental opportunity
Urban greening
How much of London is green?
- One of the world’s greenest cities – 47% of it – parks, woodlands and cemeteries
- Central London has lots of parks
- Local parks lots of these in inner and outer London
- Suburban growth – the expansion of London in the early 20th Century led to the development of suburbs – they were built on farmland
Why is it good to have green cities?
- Trees produce oxygen, clean the air and help reduce global warming
- Trees and green space reduce the danger of flooding by slowing down the rate at which rainwater drains from the land
- Parks, woodlands and even domestic gardens provide a habitat for wildlife, including birds, insects and mammals
- People enjoy green open spaces and they help use to keep healthy. We use these spaces for walking, running, cycling and for sport
- People also use green spaces for growing food. There are 30,000 allotments in London
Urban greening: Greening the roofs
- What: installing 30 green roof on premises in Herne shops in Norwood
- The aim is to
- Improve air quality
- Absorb storm water run-off reducing flooding
- Places for butterflied and beetles to live, feed and nest
- A green roof is a deliberately vegetated roof
- Sedum plants are used as they can swell up and absorb water
Social challenges
Urban inequalities
- Social deprivation – the degree to which a person or a community lacks the things that are essential for a decent life, including work, money, housing and services
- Deprivation can be measured through life expectancy (how long a person lives) and through benefits
Why is inequality still a challenge in London?
Why is there a housing shortage?
More people being born
More migration
London grows by 100,000 people every year and only 20,000 new houses are built
Rise in divorce
People living longer
Brownfield sites – these have been built on before and are found in the city centre
Greenfield sites – these have not been built on before and are found on the outskirts of the city
Issues about building on brownfield and greenfield sites
Urban sprawl – the uncontrolled spreading out into the countryside of an urban area
Green belt: should new homes be built here to reduce urban sprawl?
The green belt is an area of land that is protected from development. It is designed to stop urban sprawl. However much development such as new housing does happen here. People can feel they lose the nice views, access to green areas will be gone and the loss of wildlife. Some people will like it as they could move out of the inner city and buy a cheaper house.
Environmental challenge: London’s pollution problem
Coal burnt in 19th Century gave out a lot of pollution
There is a lot of pollution
The main source is emissions from road vehicles and modern housing systems
This is made worse by the dense road networks in London and tall buildings that trap air between them
The worst pollution record in Europe
The worst issue is nitrogen dioxide which comes from road vehicles
4,000 premature deaths a year in London due to long-term exposure to air pollution
How will new cycle superhighways help?
- New cycle superhighways are planned to reduce traffic and cycles
- Cyclists have increased from 1% to 15% of road users in London over the past 50 years.
What happens to London’s waste?
- A quarter of London’s waste goes to landfill
- Landfill waste contributes to wider environmental problems
- Greater greenhouse emissions in the atmosphere
- More of the waste is now recycled or incinerated (burnt to generate electricity) – target for zero waste to go to landfill
Case Study
Nigeria
Nigeria is a Newly Emerging Economy (NEE) county which is experiencing rapid economic development which is leading to significant social, environmental and cultural change.
This is a case study.
Location of Nigeria:
It is in West Africa.
3 times larger than the UK
184 million people live there.
By 2050 it will have the fourth biggest population in the world.
Social and cultural context
- Formed in the 20th Century under British rule
- Gained independence in 1960
- 500 ethnic groups which leads to lots of tension
- Three main religions – Christianity, Islam and traditional African
- Recent rapid urbanisation has meant lots of people moving in towns and cities
Environmental context
- 5-12 degrees north of the Equator in tropical Africa
- As you move further north the country becomes drier
- In the south it is a hot and humid climate with tropical rainforest
- Savannah grassland in the north
- Much natural vegetation has been replaced by agriculture
Political context
- Civil war from 1967-1970 followed by military dictatorships
- Stable democracy in 1998 with regular elections
- Conflict with Boko Haram in the north – an Islamic extremist organisation
Changing industrial structure
- The largest economy in Africa
- Economy is growing very rapidly but most people are still poor – living on less than US$1.25 a day
- A growing inequality – a few rich people some well-paying jobs in cities
- Most wealth in the south around Lagos with greater poverty in the north and south-east
- Moving form a mainly agricultural economy into an industrial economy
- Half of GDP comes from manufacturing and service industries
- Telecommunications – 115 million mobile phone users
- Retail and wholesale – small business growing to become part of the formal sector
- Film industry in Nigeria (Nollywood) – third biggest in the world
How can manufacturing industry stimulate economic development?
New manufacturing industries can increase the pace of economic development in Nigeria in several ways:
- Improving the standard of living by products of industries such as cement
- Producing manufactured goods in the country reduces the need to import goods and can be cheaper
- New industries create jobs, give people an income and contribute to the country’s wealth through taxes
The expansion of Nigerian companies into other countries increases Nigeria’s influence in the region
Trans-National Corporations (TNCs)
In Nigeria TNCs pay a large role in industrial development. When TNCs operate in a country they build factories which provide jobs for the local people and the government can receive taxes from this. The TNCs spend money on developing the local infrastructure (roads & services) which make the lives of the local people better.
TNCs such as Shell which drills for oil has had a large environmental impact on Nigeria
Oil spills from leaking pipelines damage farmland so crops no longer grow
Gas flares are used to burn off gas from the oil. Apart from being wasteful, the fumes affect people’s health and contribute to global warming
Oil heated by the sun becomes highly flammable and can burn out of control
Oil pollution, which occurs offshore from tankers, kills fish in the sea
Nigeria’s changing political and trading relationships in the wider world
Relationship with Britain – Strong trading relationship from colonial times with palm oil and slavery. Now Nigeria exports lots of natural commodities to Britain in exchange for imported manufactured goods
Nigeria still trades with the UK but now does lots of business with the USA, China, India and the EU. Since independence, oil has replaced other natural commodities as Nigeria’s main export. But the country still manufactured goods like machinery, chemicals and transport equipment
Relationship with China – Main export partner for manufactured goods. China is investing in Nigeria to improve its infrastructure. China’s economy and people need lots of resources so its economy can grow and the quality of life continue to improve
Aid and Nigeria
Most AID in Nigeria is international aid.
Types of Aid
Aid has been very useful in Nigeria – from 2009-2013, 60 million mosquito nets were distributed to households across Nigeria as part of an internal aid project funded by the World bank, IMF and USA government.
The effects of economic development on quality of life for the population
- Quality of life can be measured in a number of ways. The Human Development Index (HDI) combines life expectancy, years of schooling and Gross National Income (GNI)
The benefits of economic development
