✓ Subject-Verb Agreement

The subject and verb must match in number (singular/plural).

Key Rule: Ignore intervening phrases between subject and verb

Example:

❌ The diner near the dorms which houses the students serve breakfast.

✅ The diner near the dorms which houses the students serves breakfast.

Watch Out For: "Each," "every," "either," "neither" = SINGULAR verbs

✓ Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

Pronouns must match their antecedents in number and person.

Common Errors:

• Unclear reference: "When Jason and Alexander sat down, he ate more." (Who?)
• Number mismatch: "If a student gets in early, they still must study." (Use "he or she" or make plural)
• Who vs. Whom: "Who" = subject; "Whom" = object
• That vs. Who: "Who" for people; "That" for things

Indefinite Pronouns: everyone, anyone, someone, no one = SINGULAR

✓ Verb Tense Consistency

Maintain consistent verb tenses within a sentence or passage unless there's a clear reason to shift.

Rule: Look for time markers (yesterday, now, tomorrow, since, before, after)

Example:

❌ She walked to the store and buys milk.

✅ She walked to the store and bought milk.

✓ Commas and Punctuation

1. Independent Clauses:

Use FANBOYS (For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So) with a comma OR use a semicolon

✅ London is old, but it has modern buildings.

✅ London is old; it has modern buildings.

2. Dependent Clauses:

When a dependent clause starts a sentence, use a comma after it

✅ Because London is old, it has buildings from many eras.

✅ It has buildings from many eras because London is old. (No comma)

3. Nonessential vs. Essential Elements:

Nonessential: Use commas to set off extra information

✅ My brother, who lives in Texas, is visiting.

Essential: No commas for necessary information

✅ The book that I borrowed is overdue.

✓ Run-on Sentences & Fragments

Sentence Fragments:

Every sentence needs: Subject + Verb + Complete thought

❌ Because the plant requires sunlight. (Fragment)

✅ Because the plant requires sunlight, it must be near a window.

Run-on Sentences:

Two independent clauses joined incorrectly

❌ I love reading I go to the library often. (No punctuation)

❌ I love reading, I go to the library often. (Comma splice)

✅ I love reading, and I go to the library often.

✅ I love reading; I go to the library often.

✓ Modifiers (Dangling & Misplaced)

Dangling Modifier:

The word being modified must appear immediately after the comma

❌ Running quickly, the finish line was reached.

✅ Running quickly, the athlete reached the finish line.

Misplaced Modifier:

Place modifiers close to what they describe

❌ I saw a dog riding my bicycle.

✅ Riding my bicycle, I saw a dog.

✓ Parallel Structure

Items in a list must have the same grammatical form

❌ She likes reading, to swim, and jogging.

✅ She likes reading, swimming, and jogging. (All -ing forms)

✅ She likes to read, to swim, and to jog. (All infinitives)

Applies to: Lists, comparisons, paired conjunctions (either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also)

✓ Transitional Words & Phrases

Three Main Types:

📌 Strategy: Cross out the transition and identify the relationship (similar/opposite/cause-effect) before choosing!

✓ Possessives vs. Plurals

• Plural: Add -s → cats, dogs, books
• Singular Possessive: Add 's → cat's, dog's, book's
• Plural Possessive: Add s' → cats', dogs', books'

Common Homophones:

✓ Illogical Comparisons

Compare only similar things

❌ New York's population is larger than Chicago.

✅ New York's population is larger than Chicago's (population).

Watch out for: Comparing items to groups that include the item itself

✓ Main Ideas & Central Ideas

💡 Formula: Topic + "So What?" = Main Idea

Steps to Find Main Idea:

1. Identify the topic (what is this passage about?)
2. Ask "So what?" (Why is the author telling me this?)
3. Look at the introduction and conclusion
4. Find repeated concepts or themes

Common Question Types:

• "Which choice best states the main idea of the text?"
• "The text is mainly concerned with..."
• "What is the primary purpose of the passage?"

✓ Supporting Details & Evidence

Details explain, prove, or support the main idea

Types of Evidence:

• Facts and Statistics: Specific numbers, data, research findings
• Examples: Specific instances that illustrate a point
• Expert Opinions: Quotes or statements from authorities
• Anecdotes: Brief stories that support a claim

📌 Strategy: Always refer back to the passage—avoid using outside knowledge!

✓ Making Inferences

Inferences require "reading between the lines"—conclusions based on evidence and reasoning

How to Make Valid Inferences:

1. Find stated facts in the passage
2. Consider what these facts suggest or imply
3. Choose answers that are directly supported by the text
4. Avoid answers that are too extreme or require outside knowledge

✓ Interpreting Data & Graphs

Some passages include tables, bar graphs, and line graphs

Steps to Analyze Graphics:

1. Read the title and labels carefully
2. Identify what is being measured (units, scale)
3. Look for trends (increase, decrease, stability)
4. Compare data points as needed
5. Match information to what the passage states

✓ Words in Context (Vocabulary)

Determine the meaning of high-utility academic words based on context

Types of Context Clues:

⚡ Quick Tip: Don't assume a word's common meaning—always check how it's used in context!

✓ Text Structure & Purpose

Analyze how authors organize ideas and achieve rhetorical goals

Common Text Structures:

• Chronological: Events in time order
• Cause and Effect: Shows relationships between events/actions
• Problem-Solution: Identifies an issue and proposes solutions
• Compare and Contrast: Examines similarities and differences
• Description: Provides details about a topic

Author's Purpose:

• To Inform: Present facts and information
• To Persuade: Convince readers of a viewpoint
• To Entertain: Engage readers with storytelling
• To Explain: Clarify how or why something works

✓ Tone and Style

Tone = Author's attitude toward the subject

Common Tones:

📖 Look for: Word choice, punctuation, sentence structure, and figurative language

✓ Common Literary Devices

• Metaphor: Direct comparison without "like" or "as" (Time is money)
• Simile: Comparison using "like" or "as" (Her smile was like sunshine)
• Personification: Giving human qualities to non-human things (The wind whispered)
• Hyperbole: Exaggeration for effect (I've told you a million times)
• Alliteration: Repetition of initial consonant sounds (Peter Piper picked)
• Imagery: Descriptive language appealing to the senses
• Irony: Saying one thing but meaning another; contrast between expectation and reality

✓ Rhetorical Synthesis

Combine information from bullet points to achieve a specific rhetorical goal

Common Goals:

• Emphasize a similarity or difference
• Introduce a study and its findings
• Provide an explanation and example
• Present a claim and supporting evidence

Strategy (4 Steps):

1. Identify the goal stated in the question prompt
2. Read the bullet points and note relevant information
3. Test the choices against the goal and the facts
4. Select the choice that accomplishes the goal AND accurately uses the information

🎯 Key: The answer must both achieve the goal AND be factually accurate based on the notes!

✓ Organization and Cohesion

Improve how paragraphs flow and connect logically

Questions May Ask You To:

• Choose the most effective sentence placement
• Select the best opening or closing sentence
• Improve paragraph transitions
• Determine the most logical order of ideas

💡 Look for: Topic sentences, supporting details, and smooth connections between ideas

✓ Conciseness and Precision

Choose words and phrases that are clear, direct, and appropriate

Principles:

• Eliminate redundancy: Don't repeat the same idea unnecessarily
• Choose precise words: Use the most specific and accurate term
• Avoid wordiness: Say more with fewer words
• Match tone to purpose: Formal writing for academic contexts

Examples:

❌ "In my personal opinion, I think that..." (Redundant)

✅ "I believe that..."

❌ "The reason why is because..." (Wordy)

✅ "The reason is..." or "Because..."

⏱️ Time Management

• You have approximately 1 minute and 11 seconds per question
• Read the question FIRST, then the passage
• If stuck, mark and move on—return later
• Use your annotation tools to mark key information

🎯 The 3-Step Method

1. What is the question asking? (Identify question type)
2. What do I need from the passage? (Focus your reading)
3. What answer strategy? (Predict & Match OR Eliminate wrong choices)

✅ Answer Elimination Tips

• Eliminate extremes: Answers with "always," "never," "only" are often wrong
• Check for accuracy: Answer must match passage information exactly
• Stay in scope: Eliminate answers that go beyond the passage
• Watch for reversals: Answers that flip the passage meaning

⚠️ Common Mistakes to Avoid

• ❌ Using outside knowledge instead of passage information
• ❌ Choosing answers that "sound good" but change meaning
• ❌ Ignoring context when answering vocabulary questions
• ❌ Reading too quickly and missing key details
• ❌ Spending too much time on one difficult question

💪 Remember: Practice Makes Perfect!

Work through official practice tests and review your mistakes to improve your score.